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Landscape and Environment

Research Questions

SIRFA SH4: What was the land and seascape like at the time of Mesolithic settlement across Shetland?

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SIRFA SH4
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To understand Shetland ‘s Mesolithic populations, it is crucial to understand the environment they existed in and moved through. Our understanding of sea level change in Shetland lags behind research in other areas, notably Orkney. We also need more palaeoenvironmental and palaeoclimatology data for Shetland’s Mesolithic. What is the extent of current knowledge on the environment during this period? What is known about the land and seascape during colonisation and initial settlement? How should researchers synthesise this data? This area of research will rely on inter-disciplinary work, particularly focusing on palaeoenvironmental data and palaeoclimatology. It is unlikely that these questions will be addressed via a single project. It is likely that in response to this question researchers will need to take a multi-disciplinary and holistic approach. In a developer-funded context, the research significance of environmental data needs to be emphasized.

SIRFA SH5: Where are Shetland’s Mesolithic sites?

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SIRFA SH5
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A significant concern with understanding Shetland’s Mesolithic is in the ability to find or locate Mesolithic sites. It is currently believed that most of these sites were coastal and are therefore likely to now be underwater. To what extent is this the case? Are all Mesolithic sites now inundated? If this is the case, what methodologies should be utilised to locate and explore these sites? Is it possible to excavate them? It is possible that new methodologies will be developed to tackle this research area. Additionally, the training of marine/underwater specialists for this topic is encouraged and considered of particular importance for Shetlandic archaeology as a whole. Training recreational divers to identify Mesolithic remains might pay dividends for example. Developer-funded work is likely to play an important role here; trial trench evaluations and archaeological monitoring provide scope for identify sites and material across large, previously uninvestigated areas and landscapes. Opportunistic discoveries of potential Mesolithic remains should be considered a priority in this context. More consistent and targeted surveys within a research context may also be valuable, although knowing where to look is the first challenge. The development of new approaches, techniques and methods, especially with regards to marine/underwater survey approaches, has huge potential.

SIRFA SH12: How was the Shetlandic landscape used and structured across the Mesolithic period?

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SIRFA SH12
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This is an aspirational question. Currently, so little is known about the Mesolithic across Shetland there isn’t enough information, data or sites to address this question. Nevertheless, this is the level of knowledge and understanding that researchers should aspire to. With more sites and data is should be possible to better characterise the landscape and seascape, its structure, how it was used and, crucially, how this changed over time. This question is likely to be best addressed through more consistent and focused field surveys, alongside multi-pronged, inter-disciplinary methods of data collection and a dedicated program of radiocarbon dating. Developer-funded work is likely to play an important role; trial trench evaluations and archaeological monitoring provide scope for identify sites and material across large, previously uninvestigated areas and landscapes. Opportunistic discoveries of Mesolithic remains are also likely to contribute key data.

SIRFA SH13: How did Mesolithic communities respond to environmental change across Shetland?

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SIRFA SH13
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This is an aspirational question. Currently, there is a lack of information, data and sites to address this question in earnest. Nevertheless, this is the level of knowledge and understanding that researchers should aspire to. With more sites and data, a better understanding of the structure of the Mesolithic landscape alongside a better understanding of the palaeoenvironment, it should be possible to address these questions. It is unlikely that these questions will be addressed via a single project. A series of well-funded projects, almost certainly interdisciplinary and multi-proxy in nature, are likely ways forward. Within a developer-funded context, the importance of retaining faunal assemblages and environmental data for this period and funding post-excavation work needs emphasis.

SIRFA SH14: How did Shetland’s palaeoenvironmental change between the LUP and Mesolithic?

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SIRFA SH14
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There are still large gaps in our knowledge and understanding of Shetland’s paleoenvironment, specifically with regard to the LUP and Mesolithic period. What was the nature of vegetation cover and how did this change over time? How did vegetation cover vary across and between islands? Where was the coastline and how did this change into the Mesolithic period? Were changes to the environment gradual or sudden? Can we identify periods of acceleration? And were rates of change regionally uniform or locally specific? It is unlikely that these questions will be addressed via a single project. A series of well-funded projects, almost certainly interdisciplinary and multi-proxy in nature, are likely ways forward. Within a developer-funded context, the importance of palaeoenvironmental data needs emphasising.

SIRFA SH30: Why are Neolithic burial cairns different in Shetland?

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SIRFA SH30
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Shetland’s Neolithic cairns are different to those found elsewhere in Scotland. Intriguingly, Neolithic burial cairns in Shetland do share similarities with some of the larger Irish passage graves. However, they are notably smaller than those found in either Orkney or the Outer Hebrides and were clearly used very differently due to vastly contrasting sizes. Why is this? Is this due to a difference of available materials, or deeper cultural difference? or are there other explanations. Is it possible to determine this through the use of methodologies currently available? Whilst appearing primarily as a theoretical, address these questions will also likely benefit from further data through dedicated more survey work and with a potential later focus on long-term excavation efforts. In a developer-funded context, the research significance of dating and other post-excavation work needs to be emphasised, in addition to the accurate and thorough recording of structures and material culture.

SIRFA SH31: What was Shetland’s Neolithic environment like?

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SIRFA SH31
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Understanding the environment is crucial to understanding the daily lives and lived experiences of Neolithic populations. How extensive was tree cover across Shetland during the Neolithic? What species of flora and fauna were extant during this period? How should this data and knowledge be synthesised? It is recommended that the primary step in this work focuses on the synthesis of current knowledge on the Neolithic environment; this will allow more specific research gaps to be identified and further focused on. This is likely to be a multi-disciplinary topic, involving palaeoenvironmental work along with palaeoclimatology and palaeoecology. A better understanding of the Neolithic coastline across Shetland will also be key. In a developer-funded context, the research significance of environmental data needs to be emphasised.

SIRFA SH33: What was the impact of the emergence of agriculture in Shetland?

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SIRFA SH33
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The arrival of agriculture was a landmark stage in the development of many cultures across the globe. However, the impacts of the arrival of farming are not necessarily examined beyond changes in diet and a shift to sedentary settlement. What were the impacts on Shetland’s environment? How did the arrival of crops and livestock impact on the flora and fauna? What was the extent of prehistoric cereal cultivation during this time? Further, what was the extent of usable land (for farming or otherwise)? What were the wider impacts of the arrival of agriculture on Shetland’s material culture? For example, the tools, pottery, artistic outlets, etc. Existing research has begun to address this and related questions (Whittle 1986; Turner 2013). However, there is a lot more detail to uncover. It is suggested that future research considers focusing on the South Mainland, which is likely to have been an attractive area for growing crops as well as beneficial to archaeological researchers in terms of preservation conditions. However, there is very little complementary palaeoenvironmental work for this region (although see Whittington et al 2003). It is unlikely that these questions will be addressed via a single project. A series of well-funded projects, almost certainly interdisciplinary and multi-proxy in nature, are likely ways forward. It is likely that these questions will be addressed partly through collation, reassessment and reanalysis of existing grey, published, and unpublished literature, in addition to synthesis of the knowledge held within museum collections and environmental data. Research may also be reliant on more survey work and data, with a potential later focus on long-term excavation efforts. In a developer-funded context, the research significance of surveying, dating and other post-excavation work with the potential to inform on this period needs to be emphasised, as well as environmental data and post-excavation work.

SIRFA SH34: Why were early prehistoric settlements so widely dispersed across Shetland?

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SIRFA SH34
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One of the key ways in which Shetland differs from Orkney is in prehistoric settlement lay out. Why does the Neolithic population appear to be so spread out across Shetland? Furthermore, why do nucleated settlements appear to emerge so much later in Shetland than in Orkney? Is this view even accurate, or a result of biases in the current dataset? Was land capacity and related economics a key factor? It is expected that addressing this question will require a synthesis of field survey data in combination with long term excavation of settlements and environmental research. Geophysics and field walking across the South Mainland, an area that is both more fertile and more suitable for geophysics, might help to address knowledge gaps. As could geophysics across areas which have silted up post-Neolithic. Better dating and palaeoenvironmental evidence would also be helpful, as well as a better understanding of the Neolithic coastline. Have some Neolithic settlements been lost due to coastal erosion giving us a skewed pattern of settlement patterns? In a developer-funded contexts the significance of any Neolithic settlement remains needs to be emphasised.

SIRFA SH36: What range of resources did Shetland’s Neolithic communities use and rely on for their subsistence?

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SIRFA SH36
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It is currently unclear what the full range of resources exploited by Neolithic communities looked like in Shetland. Is it possible to identify the full range of resources and how and when they were used? Seasonality must be considered, in addition to variations in diet and resource usage that may have related to age, sex, gender, and such. In contrast to the Mesolithic, there is the additional interplay of the sea, crops (or agricultural resources), domesticated animals and wild resources throughout the Neolithic. Was there a shift in natural resource use into the Neolithic across Shetland? Was this significant? Further, how should this be explored? What methodologies should be utilised? Reassessment of existing datasets, reports, archives and collections, alongside new programmes of material analysis are likely ways forward. In a developer-funded context, the research significance of faunal and environmental data needs to be emphasised.

SIRFA SH42: Why are there no monuments in Shetland’s Neolithic?

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SIRFA SH42
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Current understanding of the Shetland Neolithic points to an almost complete lack of monumentality. Is this accurate? What methods should be utilised to explore this? Does this mean current researchers simply do not understand Shetland monumentality? Is this a result of distinct and unusual monumental sites that have not been found (or recognised), or a result of monumentality taking a fundamentally different shape here? Did agriculture, climate, resources, or landscape have monumental components in a way currently not understood? Were technologies or industries monumentalised in some way? Does current accepted knowledge confuse domestic subsistence sites with monumental sites? Or vice versa? Whilst appearing primarily as a theoretical, address these questions will likely be reliant on a considerable push in physical archaeological research across Shetland; It is likely that further dedicated survey work, as well as opportunities discoveries and those via developer-funded work, will enhance datasets and thus knowledge. In a developer-funded context, the research significance of dating and other post-excavation work needs to be emphasised, in addition to the accurate and thorough recording of structures and material culture.

SIRFA SH43: Why has a major Neolithic henge monument yet to be found in Shetland?

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SIRFA SH43
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There appears to be a lack of monumental Neolithic sites in Shetland – this includes major henge monuments. Why does there not appear to be a single henge monument across any of the islands in Shetland? Is this due to a difference in materials or resources available to the Neolithic populations? Or different cultural values, practices and perceptions of monumentality? Is it possible that henge-type monuments were present but subsequently removed or incorporated into sites in order to better utilise the land? Or perhaps as a result of incoming religions or faiths? Are researchers looking in the wrong places? Have these henge sites become water inundated since construction? Or did they never exist in Shetland? It is likely that further dedicated survey work, as well as opportunities discoveries and those via developer-funded work, will enhance datasets and thus knowledge. In a developer-funded context, the research significance of dating and other post-excavation work needs to be emphasised, in addition to the accurate and thorough recording of structures and material culture.

SIRFA SH44: Is there a spatial relationship between Shetland’s Neolithic burials and Neolithic settlements?

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SIRFA SH44
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Neolithic burials from Shetland are distinctly absent from the archaeological record. Is this a result of the preservation rates amongst acidic soils, or due to burial practices of the time? Or perhaps researchers looking in the wrong locations? Is it possible to locate burials (or burial rite spaces) near to settlements? What is the spatial relationship between burials (once located) and settlements? Were burials located a significant distance from the settlements, or very close by? It is likely that these questions will be addressed partly through collation, reassessment and reanalysis of existing material and literature. Digital mapping, modelling and wider landscapes approaches are encouraged. It is likely that further dedicated survey work, as well as opportunities discoveries and those via developer-funded work, will enhance datasets. In a developer-funded context, the research significance of surveying, dating and other post-excavation work with the potential to inform on this period needs to be emphasised.

SIRFA SH45: What agricultural system was in use during Shetland’s Neolithic?

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SIRFA SH45
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Is it possible to determine what systems of agriculture were developed and in place during Shetland’s Neolithic? Was it a predominantly pastoral, arable, or mixed system? Further, was this an agricultural economy? Was the Neolithic subsistence economy more complex than is typically assumed? Further, is there any evidence to indicate how land was managed? The introduction of farming is usually associated with the establishing of field walled field systems; was this the case in Shetland? Where are the land divisions for crops or animals? If they were in use why have they not yet been found

SIRFA SH52: Why are there so many burnt mounds in Bronze Age Shetland?

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SIRFA SH52
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Whilst burnt mounds are found across the British Isles, there is a very high number of them found in Shetland. Why do they survive when many other features do not? Or are we just failing to recognise contemporary sites? Does their survival relate to the local folklore and superstitions? Or is their preservation a factor of location and environment? Or is there something else specific about Shetland’s Bronze Age and the significance of burnt mounds? This is a complex question that is unlikely to be addressed fully within a single research project; it is encouraged that a series of projects (or PhDs) are designed to tackle it. In a developer-funded context, the research significance of burnt mounds, including dating and other post-excavation work on these sites, needs to be emphasised, in addition to the accurate and thorough recording of structures and material culture of this period.

SIRFA SH53: What was Shetland’s Bronze Age environment like?

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SIRFA SH53
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An understanding of the Bronze age environment is crucial to informing interpretations and understanding of the Bronze Age life. Where was the coastline, what flora and fauna defined the island environment, what of the soils and their stability? Were there any significant changes to the Neolithic flora and fauna into and through the Bronze Age? Were there significant climatic changes during this period? If so, what triggered these changes? Further, what does an understanding of Shetland’s Bronze Age environment tell us about life at the time? Did increasing peat growth initiate a shift in settlement during the Bronze Age? In order to address these questions, synthesising current knowledge and data is likely a first step which will also help determine more specific research gaps going forward. It is likely that a range of new and established methodologies will be employed to address this broad research areas. Within a developer-funded context, the research significance of environmental data from this period should be emphasised.

SIRFA SH55: Where are Shetland’s Late Bronze Age settlements?

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SIRFA SH55
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Bronze Age settlements in Shetland have proved difficult to locate. More specifically, there are key gaps in our knowledge of Late Bronze Age through to Early Iron Age houses across Shetland. Late Bronze Age houses have been identified at Jarlshof. But where are the rest of Shetland’s Late Bronze Age settlements? Are Late Bronze Age sites hidden within broad categories of either ‘prehistoric’ or ‘Neolithic/Bronze’ sites? How do we go about identifying Late Bronze Age settlements.? It is expected that initial forays into this topic will utilise results of prior survey work. Targeted survey work to identify likely Late Bronze Age settlements and excavations to clarify occupation dates of known sites will undoubtably move these questions forward. More reliable dates will be the key to unlocking research potential here. In a developer-funded context, the research significance of dating and other post-excavation work needs to be emphasised as well as the potential for survey, evaluation and monitoring work to greatly enhance known Bronze Age settlements.

SIRFA SH56: What was the pattern of Bronze Age settlement across Shetland?

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SIRFA SH56
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Bronze Age settlements in Shetland have proven difficult to locate. Where are they? What was their density across the landscape? Are Bronze Age structures in fact hiding amongst unknown or multiperiod sites? How did patterns of settlement change throughout the Bronze Age period? It is expected that initial forays into this topic will utilise results of prior survey work. Targeted survey work to identify likely Late Bronze Age settlements and excavations to clarify occupation dates of known sites will undoubtably move these questions forward. More reliable dates will be the key to unlocking research potential here. In a developer-funded context, the research significance of dating and other post-excavation work needs to be emphasised as well as the potential for survey, evaluation and monitoring work to greatly enhance known Bronze Age settlements.

SIRFA SH58: What agricultural system was in use during Shetland’s Bronze Age?

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SIRFA SH58
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Major steps towards understanding Shetland’s prehistoric landscape have been made by Turner (2012) and Christie (2019). But there remains a lack of chronological refinement and thus key gaps around how the Bronze Age landscape was structured and used. Is it possible to determine what agricultural systems were in place in Shetland during the Bronze Age? Was it pastoral, arable, or mixed? Further, was this an agricultural economy? Was the economy of this time more complex than is typically assumed? Further, is there any evidence to show how land was managed? The introduction of farming is usually associated with the establishing of field walled field systems; is this correct? Where are the land divisions for crops or animals? If they were in use why have they not yet been found? It is likely that this will be best answered through landscape survey, strategic excavation strategies as well as continued analysis of existing assemblages. The general paucity of Bronze Age dates and is also a barrier to further research here. Within a developer-funded context the significance and value of retaining and analysing faunal remains and environmental evidence needs emphasis.

SIRFA SH65: How do Shetland crannogs compare to those found elsewhere in Scotland?

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SIRFA SH65
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Recent research has significantly expanded our knowledge of crannog sites across Shetland (Stratigos 2021), as well as revealing new questions and highlighting research gaps. Some Shetland crannogs supported brochs. Were those crannogs built specifically for complex, monumental Iron Age architecture or was this pragmatic reuse? How does crannog construction and crannog use across Shetland differ or compare with Hebridean, highland and Orcadian crannogs? Were they constructed and used over similar time periods? What about the distribution of crannog sites – how does Shetland’s evidence compare with elsewhere? In light of recent discoveries in the Hebrides, greater attention should be given to the full suite of evidence across the Scottish islands, including Shetland. This is a broad and wide-ranging question and is unlikely to be answered with a single research project; it is encouraged that a series of projects (or PhDs) are designed to tackle it. It is likely that targeted survey work and GIS analysis, along with targeted excavations and systematic radiocarbon dating, will all play a role.

SIRFA SH70: How was Shetland’s monumental Iron Age landscape structured?

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SIRFA SH70
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Was there any patterning to the types of locations selected for broch building and monumental place-making within Shetland’s Iron Age landscapes? How do broch sites relate to wider resource locales, such as potential stone quarries, freshwater sources, agricultural land, natural landing bays, etc? What of the relationship between broch sites, and the overall chronology and structure of Shetland’s monumental Iron Age landscapes? Fojut (1989) and Smith (2004) have made inroads into this, but there is lots of potential to take these questions forward. Exploring the placing and wider locale of brochs within the Iron Age landscape has great investigative potential. Enhancing earlier landscape studies with new landscape and walk-over survey work, collecting, using and analysing remote sensing data, digital and non-digital mapping work and computer modelling and landscape simulation work are all likely to be fruitful ways forward. Within a developer-funded context, survey results in previously investigated or poorly investigated landscapes has the potential to bring new data and new perspectives to these questions.

SIRFA SH72: How were wood resources managed and used by Shetland’s Iron Age communities?

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SIRFA SH72
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It is a well-held assumption, that monumental Iron Age architecture required substantial timber resources for flooring and roofing. What is the direct evidence for the use of timber as a building material during the Shetlandic Iron Age? What about other uses of wood during this period, for example for artefacts and fuel? How extensive and available were natural timber resources across Shetland during this period? Current thinking suggest that Shetland was not densely wooded during later prehistory. But it is possible that small, but effective, areas of woodland were carefully managed by Iron Age communities. If that was the case, how might this be better evidenced archaeologically? Driftwood may also have been an important and potentially sustainable resource. Essentially, how was wood used and where did it come from during Shetland’s Iron Age? Is there evidence to suggest a decline in timber resources during the Iron Age and if so, how does this correspond to changes in material culture and architecture? These complex research gaps likely require a range of multidisciplinary approaches to push our knowledge and understanding forward; targeted pollen studies and other environmental analyses, reanalysis of existing excavation records, archives and museum collections, opportunistic discoveries of wooden materials in waterlogged contexts, etc. In a developer-funded context, the significance of recovering, conserving and analysing environmental and other organic materials needs to be emphasised.

SIRFA SH73: What did the full range of Shetland’s Iron Age settlement and structures look like?

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SIRFA SH73
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Whilst Shetland’s brochs and associated broch villages are relatively well known and well-researched (Dockrill 2003; Dockrill et al 2015), by comparison knowledge and understanding of other Iron Age structures and settlements remains poor. What did the full range of Iron Age settlement and structures look like and where are these sites? In particular, what other domestic structures were contemporary with the monumental broch sites, or did brochs and their associated broch villages represent the principal settlement locales during this period? If other, perhaps more modest structures, were in use during the Iron Age, how do researchers find them and what are the challenges? Targeted survey work is an obvious way forward. Is there also a role for ethnographic and placename studies in locating other Iron Age settlements? In a developer-funded context, the research significance of dating and other post-excavation work needs to be emphasised, in addition to field surveying and the accurate and thorough recording of structures and material culture.

SIRFA SH75: What can animal remains tell us about Shetland’s Later Prehistoric land use and management?

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SIRFA SH75
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Research elsewhere in Scotland has successfully combined more traditional faunal analyses with newer laboratory techniques to better understand Later Prehistoric land management and animal husbandry (e.g. Iron Age dairying in the Hebrides). Is a similar approach possible and appropriate for exploring Shetland’s later prehistory? It is suggested that researchers explore multi-disciplinary approaches and utilise archaeological sciences, such as stable isotope analysis. This research will likely require appropriate datasets. Collating and assessing the potential of existing datasets and targeting new sites are likely to be key in moving this research forward. In a commercial context, the research significance of Later Prehistoric faunal material and Later Prehistoric farming, land management and agricultural remains needs to be emphasised.

SIRFA SH78: What was the legacy of Shetland’s brochs during the Norse period?

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SIRFA SH78
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Brochs dominate much of Shetland’s modern landscape and would have similarly dominated the landscape encountered by Norse settlers. How were these monuments understood and perceived by Norse settlers? What did these structures represent to them? How extensive is the archaeological evidence for reuse and adaption of brochs (and broch villages) during the Norse period? Additionally, how many of these structures were still function or used when Norse settlers arrived? This links to broader questions about the nature of Norse settlement; to what extent did the Norse settlers occupy previously unpopulated areas of Shetland and to what extent did they settle in existing domestic landscapes? Reevaluating existing survey and excavation records is likely an important first step. New data from targeted excavations and survey is also likely to move these questions forward. In a developer-funded context, the importance of recording and funding post-excavation work on multi-period and reuse sites that span the broch and Norse settlements, needs emphasis. In addition the value of carrying out archaeological surveys across previously uninvestigated landscapes.

SIRFA SH82: Why do pre-Norse placenames survive in some areas of Shetland, but not in others?

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SIRFA SH82
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Analysis of placename evidence has been valuable in understanding Norse presence across other areas of Scotland (such as the Outer Hebrides). Whilst the majority of Shetland placenames are Norse in origin, a small percentage appear to be pre-Norse. Why is this? Does this indicate a longer lived pre-Norse presence in these specific places? Does the archaeological landscape reveal any further clues? Does folklore and other oral histories bring additional knowledge and understanding to the place name evidence? Finally, is it possible to determine the date of pre-Norse place-naming? This area of research is necessarily multi-disciplinary in nature, and will likely revolve around the combined use of ethnography, anthropology, historical records, oral histories, as well as archaeological data. In a developer-funded context, the value of carrying out archaeological surveys across previously uninvestigated landscape needs emphasis.

SIRFA SH93: How did environmental changes impact Shetland during the medieval period?

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SIRFA SH93
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What was the impact of climate fluctuations such as the Little Ice Age? How have the islanders altered their surrounding environment through the centuries? Older farming techniques are frequently romanticised and perceived as ‘better’ or ‘more sustainable’ – but was this the case? Existing palaeoecology and palaeoenvironmental studies may be relevant here but need to be synthesised with archaeological and historical evidence. We also need an understanding of localised environmental dynamics. Further interdisciplinary work on sea level change would also have a valuable contribution to make here. Within a developer-funded context, the importance of retaining faunal assemblages and environmental data for post-excavation work needs emphasis.

SIRFA SH102: What did Shetland’s pre-clearance landscape look like?

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SIRFA SH102
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What do we know about the pre-Clearance settlements of Shetland? Where were they and what did they look like? Pre-Clearance structures/settlements are under-researched, as well as frequently overlooked and undervalued. Can we date these settlements? When were they first established? What can be learnt from these sites about pre-Clearance Shetland life? And how does an understanding of pre-clearance landscapes aid understanding of the impacts of Clearance? In a developer-funded context, the research significance of pre-clearance or potentially pre-clearance sites and materials needs emphasising. Alongside this, the need for accurate and thorough recording of structures and material culture and the importance of dating and other post-excavation work on material of this period.

SIRFA SH103: How did Shetland’s religious landscapes change throughout the post-medieval period?

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SIRFA SH103
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Part of the church’s post-medieval power lay in the structure and ownership of land. How was the post-medieval religious landscape structured? Where were the parish churches founded and how did this change over time? How did church land ownership expand or diminish through time from 1500 onwards? Does the structure of the landscape and the extent of church land link to the expansion and reduction of the church’s influence in Shetland? Targeted surveys of the post-medieval landscape in conjunction with map regression work and use of historical sources are likely to help expand understanding of this topic. In a developer-funded context, the significance of post-medieval religious sites needs to be emphasised. Accurate and through recording of post-medieval sites alongside post-excavation and dating work will be important.

SIRFA SH104: How did Shetland’s ‘urban’ settlements develop during the post-medieval period?

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SIRFA SH104
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Although predominantly rural, Shetland has several towns and settlements that emerge throughout the post-medieval period that can be classed as ‘urban’. How did these urban settlements grow and develop? When did ‘urban’ settlements first appear in Shetland? What was the origin of Shetland’s large modern settlements? In particular, what is the earliest archaeological evidence for Lerwick? What can the urban archaeology of Shetland tell us about Shetland’s history and economic growth? Whilst Shetland’s urban development is relatively well documented, there is surprisingly little archaeological evidence and more work is clearly required. Encouraging people to report finds might produce new evidence. Shetland was not included in the Historic Environment Scotland’s Burgh Survey Project, however this approach could be adopted for both Lerwick and Scalloway, and perhaps Baltasound. A lack of data for this period and topic is a key barrier. It is likely that a series of research projects will be required to enhance knowledge and understanding. Collating and assessing existing archaeological information, use of existing archives and museums collections, map-regression work and use of historical documents are all likely to be important approaches. Developer funded research is likely to play an important role in enhancing data and information for this period and topic. In a developer-funded context, the significance of post-medieval urban remains needs to be emphasised, with accurate and thorough recording of structures and material culture and post-excavation work prioritised.

SIRFA SH105: How did the concept of ‘monumentality’ feature in Shetland’s post-medieval landscape?

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SIRFA SH105
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The concept of ‘monumentality’ is familiar within archaeological narratives of Shetland’s prehistory. Adopting a similar thinking, what was ‘monumental’ about Shetland’s medieval and post-medieval landscapes? Parish churches were likely some of the most substantial and visually dominating buildings in these landscapes. Were they considered ‘monumental’ by Shetland’s medieval and post-medieval communities? What about secular features of the landscape? For example, might Shetland’s harbours and ships, substantial expressions of post-medieval engineering, be considered monumental?

SIRFA SH106: Where were Shetland’s post-medieval boat noosts and boat houses?

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SIRFA SH106
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For the post-medieval period, as with earlier periods, there are substantial knowledge gaps around how people in the past accessed, navigated and interacted with the sea. For the post-medieval period there is a sense that these knowledge gaps are less crucial; historic documents trace the establishment of Shetland’s key ports and harbours and provide some information on navigation technology and key marine industries and activities. Yet, little is still known about local or community scale interactions with the sea throughout the post-medieval period. Where are Shetland’s post-medieval boat noosts and boat houses? What of natural harbours and their use throughout the post-medieval period? What does the geographic distribution of boat noosts and boathouses suggest about marine-based subsistence practices and the wider economy throughout the post-medieval period? Furthermore, what does the evidence suggest about the need for marine transport and wider connections during Shetland’s post-medieval period? Crucially, how do we identify and date boat noosts? Can we observe changes through the post-medieval period with regard to the way in which the sea was accessed, navigated and used across Shetland? What characterises post-medieval boat noosts; how big are they, what kind or size of vessels did they likely accommodate? Were there differences in either distribution or character across the archipelago, suggestive of more localised practices? The recent Caain da Noosts Project coordinate by Moder Dy is an excellent example of a community engagement project with the aim of information gathering on this topic. In addition to this, targeted surveys are recommended as key first steps in addressing these wider questions. A fundamental aspect of this research will centre on dating these features – OSL dating has been shown to be useful in some contexts OSL (Sandison et al), but there is far more work required in terms of dating, the variety of forms and potentially function. Also, where it exists, oral history could be a valuable resource to mine. Exploring new methods is also encouraged. In a developer-funded context, the importance of boat-noosts, natural harbours and boat houses for enhancing our understanding of past marine practices needs to be emphasised. Accurate recording of these features and, where appropriate, dating and post-excavation work. We also need a better understanding of the post-medieval coastline.

SIRFA SH108: Is there evidence of pre-modern shieling use in Shetland?

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SIRFA SH108
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Shielings in Shetland are typically associated with the modern era, specifically regarded as post-18th century phenomena; is this accurate or were sheilings across Shetland built and in use prior to this? What is the earliest evidence of shieling use in Shetland? If sheilings were built and used only post-18th century, why is this so different from the evidence elsewhere in Scotland? Does this suggest different land use and agricultural practices across Shetland in comparison with other regions? Were shielings in use prior to the mid 20th century in Shetland? How did Sheiling culture differ between Shetland and other places such as the Faroes or the Outer Hebrides? It is likely that interdisciplinary approaches will be valuable here, specifically the use of historical documents and place name evidence. Excavation of sheiling sites alongside programmes of scientific dating is recommended. Within a developer-funded context the importance of sheilings and sheiling landscapes for our understanding of the development of the post-medieval landscapes needs to be emphasised.

SIRFA SH109: How was access to coastal and marine resources structured throughout the post-medieval period?

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SIRFA SH109
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It is commonly accepted that Shetland’s post-medieval landscape was structured around township divisions that included access to both agricultural and pastoral land. However, access to the coast and sea as part of post-medieval township structures is less well understood. Where were the key post-medieval shore-based fishing sites and natural harbours? What about access and rights to coastal resources and offshore fishing grounds? Were these organised and structured by township or were there different management structures at play for marine and coastal resources? Did this change over time and if so how and why? Hanseatic trade and fishing for the lairds is reasonably well documented and understood – however, the evidence for this is not always obvious. This ties into the lairds, the truk system and crofters rights (or lack of them). There will be a significant body of documentary evidence around this that could be used to complement archaeological research.

SIRFA SH110: What impact did Christianity and landownership by the church have on the development of Shetland’s modern landscape?

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SIRFA SH110
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Christianity and land ownership by the church has had a profound and lasting impact on the social structure of modern Scottish society as well as on the character and structure of the modern landscape. Can more in-depth analysis of Shetland’s ecclesiastical landscapes enhance our understanding of Shetland’s modern landscape? How has the location of churches, chapels and other religious sites impacted the development of modern settlements, the construction of roads and other infrastructure? How has Christian land ownership impacted settlement and population distribution and density across the islands?

SIRFA SH116: What has been the impact of climate and climate change on Shetland’s archaeology?

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SIRFA SH116
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Climate and climate change have a fundamental impact on the historic environment. It is important to acknowledge and account for these impacts in ongoing research across Shetland. How has climate change impacted the archaeology of Shetland? This not only applies to the survival or erosion of archaeological sites, materials and deposits, but also to our understanding of how populations in the past experienced and responded to climate change. This question can be explored from at least two different angles. As climate change continues to worsen, how will it impact Shetland’s historic environment and consequently archaeological research across Shetland? Coastal sites are of course at greatest danger to the erosive effects of climate, however, what of other sites in Shetland’s interior? Can modern experiences of major climate changes be applied to a prehistoric context? What methodologies should be used to explore the impacts of climate change on prehistoric populations? These research strands should be multi-disciplinary and likely reliant on Archaeological Sciences, as well as surveying and recording. In a commercial context, the research significance of environmental data needs to be emphasised.

SIRFA SH117: Were fishtraps a widely used technology throughout Shetland’s past?

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SIRFA SH117
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Currently, only a handful of fishtrips have been positively identified across Shetland. Fishtraps are found widely across other parts of Scotland’s coast, associated with a range of dates. What period do Shetland’s fishtraps date to? Why are there so few known fishtrap sites across Shetland’s coastlines? Was this because fishtrapping was not widely practiced across these islands, or is there is preservation or research bias at play? What might the lack of fishtrap evidence suggest about coastal changes, cultural practices, diet, resource exploitation and land management throughout Shetland’s past? New, targeted survey work, including both coastal and submerged remains, is likely to be key to addressing these questions, alongside reassessment of existing survey data and analysis of palaeoenvironmental resources to better understand coastal change over time. It is possible that new methodologies will need to be developed to more effectively address these questions. Ethnographic and historical research might also be valuable. In a developer-funded context, the relevance of coastal and underwater/submerged survey work and the significance of palaeoenvironmental remains need to be emphasised.

SIRFA SH118: What is the extent and character of Shetland’s underwater and submerged archaeological landscapes?

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SIRFA SH118
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Changing sea levels over the past millennia have substantially impacted Shetland’s coastline and available landmass. It is hypothesised that pre-Neolithic sites may survive beneath the current sea level and within Shetland’s coastal waters; if this is the case, then to what extent have wider pre-Neolithic landscapes been preserved in these environments? Addressing this question is likely to require improved understanding of eustatic and isostatic changes since the last Ice Age, and it is recommended that archaeological investigations are carried out in tandem with such research. To fully explore the potential of underwater and submerged archaeology around Shetland’s coast, it is also anticipated that new methodologies and innovative approaches will need to be developed. In a developer-funded context, the potential for recovering crucial archaeological information from submerged and underwater contexts needs particular emphasis. The value and need to fund post-excavation analysis, specifically environmental analysis and scientific dating, on material recovered from submerged and underwater contexts also needs to be communicated.

SIRFA SH119: Where are Shetland’s prehistoric and historic boat noosts and what does their distribution tell us about Shetland’s past?

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SIRFA SH119
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The location and distribution of boat noosts and boathouses has the potential to help understand wider settlement patterns and the location of previously unknown settlements of all periods across Shetland. The Distribution of boat noosts also has the potential to inform about changing seafaring technology and techniques as well as environmental changes such as shifts in sea level and other coastal changes. The dating of boat noosts presents a number of challenges. The development of effective and appropriate dating methodologies for this type of site and material is highly encouraged. OSL has previously been applied to samples from noosts (Preston et al 2019), and the continuation of this approach is encouraged in tandem with the development of other dating methods. Within a developer-funded context the research potential of boast noosts and other coastal and marine archaeology needs to be emphasised as well as the value in funding post-excavation and dating work.

SIRFA SH120: Where were Shetland’s prehistoric production sites?

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SIRFA SH120
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It is reasonably well recognised that there is a lack of known prehistoric settlement sites across Shetland. What is less well acknowledged, however, is the lack of information on economic activity and production locales beyond the well-established felsite industry. Where were food products and other materials produced and manufactured during prehistory? How did these places relate to settlements? What methodologies can be developed to increase the number of known production and other economic activity sites? Have researchers previously been looking in the wrong place? Or are these site of an ephemeral, temporary and/or seasonal nature that renders them largely invisible? If these sites can be located, what defined and characterised Shetland’s prehistoric economic activities and production? Like felsite, is there evidence that materials and resources were exported from Shetland during prehistory? It is expected that these questions will be addressed primarily through survey techniques, remote sensing, use of digital mapping as well as walk-over surveys. Developing new techniques for identifying sites is encouraged as well as evaluating existing data is likely to be fruitful. Developer-funded work has significant potential in revealing new and previously under investigated landscapes. The value of walk-over survey in these contexts and archaeological monitoring during the removal of overlying deposits has already been proven to produce highly valuable information about Shetland’s past. The ability of developer-funder work to fill substantial knowledge gaps needs emphasis.

SIRFA SH121: Can a better understanding of Shetland’s oral histories and wider intangible cultural heritage help identify archaeological sites across the archipelago?

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SIRFA SH121
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Traditionally, survey and fieldwalking have been the principal methods for locating archaeological sites. In Shetland, where whole categories of site types are seemingly absent from the archaeological record, can a better understanding of oral histories and more recent intangible cultural heritage help identify previously unknown site locations? In other areas of Scotland and in Ireland strong links have been demonstrated between place names, folk lore and significant archaeological sites; it is widely acknowledged, for example that the Gaelic place name Sithean, meaning fairy knoll, is frequently associated with a range of prehistoric archaeology sites. Can similar links be identified and explored to further our knowledge of archaeological sites and their distribution across Shetland? Furthermore, what are the implications for our understanding of Shetlandic oral histories and other intangible cultural heritage? Research seeking to explore this question will likely participate in the collation of oral histories. It is recommended that participation and involvement with local communities will be of immense value.

SIRFA SH122: Why were some sites in Shetland in continuous use over such long periods of time?

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SIRFA SH122
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Across Shetland there are several well excavated examples of multi-period sites; places occupied over millennia. Yet, while some settlement locales are long lived, many others are not. Why do some sites reveal complex stratigraphy, structures repeatedly built over one another and reused for generations, while others are characterised by single structures in use for discrete periods of time? What conditions result in settlement continuity of this kind? What does it tell us about Shetland and Shetland’s settlement in the past? Does a multi-period site indicate settlement ‘success’ or are there other ways of understanding these phenomena? How do we explain settlement continuity in Shetland’s past, as well as its counterpart the relatively short-lived and discrete settlements?

SIRFA SH123: How did windblown sand impact Shetland’s prehistoric settled landscapes? Archaeologists

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SIRFA SH123
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Archaeologists have a reasonably good understanding of the processes and impacts of windblown sand on Shetland’s historic settlements (Kinnaird, Sanderson and Bigelow 2015) – but what about the impact of windblown sand on Shetland’s prehistoric settlements and agriculture? In order to address these questions a better understanding of sand deposition and stabilisation chronologies for Shetland’s prehistory is needed. The impacts of windblown sand on prehistoric, settled landscapes are reasonably well understood for other parts of Scotland (Griffiths and Ashmore, 2011; Tisdall et al 2013). However, comparatively less is understood about prehistoric windblown sand across Shetland. How does Shetland compare? Did windblown sand impact prehistoric, settled landscapes across Shetland in similar ways to Hebridean and Orcadian landscapes? Did prehistoric communities across Shetland employ different or similar mitigation strategies and if so why?

SIRFA SH124: What is the chronology of peat development and spread across Shetland?

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SIRFA SH124
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Current thinking places peat and blanket bog development across Shetland from the mid to late Neolithic. But a more refined understanding of peat development and blanket bog spread across Shetland is still needed. More specifically, the impact of peat development and spread on settled landscapes across Shetland. The chronology of ongoing peat development and spread is integral to our understanding how prehistoric and historic populations moved through, used and abandoned parts of Shetland’s landscapes (see for example Swindles et al 2019). There is a need for new and expanded methods and approaches in order to more fully address these questions. What new methodologies could be utilised for better sampling and dating peat deposits? In a developer-funded context, the research significance of environmental sampling from peat deposits and the value of scientific dating needs to be emphasised

SIRFA SH125: How can archaeological sites be more successfully located across Shetland’s boggy, waterlogged and peatland environments be improved?

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SIRFA SH125
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Bog, peat and other waterlogged environments are ubiquitous across the Scottish Highlands and Islands. These environments are particularly prevalent in Shetland and the Western Isles, presenting a number of challenges in terms of the visibility of archaeological sites; in these environments archaeological sites, materials and deposits are frequently hidden beneath deep peat accumulations, concealed by dense heather growth, or rendered invisible as a result of landscape remoteness and accessibility issues. If we seek a more complete picture of Shetland’s past, then we need to find more effective and reliable methods for identifying archaeological sites in these environments. This question focuses on the development of new methodologies, or refining of extant approaches, for identifying missing sites in hitherto poorly investigated landscapes. Researchers will need to consider the dynamic nature of peat formation processes as well the impact of cultural processes such as peat cutting and scalping.

SIRFA SH126: What new methods can be developed to mitigate Shetland’s poor conditions for bone preservation?

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SIRFA SH126
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A significant challenge for researchers interested in Shetland’s archaeology is the dominance of acidic soils across the archipelago, where the survival of bone material is substantially reduced. These environmental conditions result in limited datasets of human and animal remains. Poor bone survival has implications for how we tackle a wide range of research questions, traditionally addressed through faunal analyses and human osteoarchaeology; this includes questions about past burial practices, diet and health, environment, animal husbandry, etc. How can this be mitigated? In the absence of substantial faunal assemblages and human remains, what alternative sources of evidence can researchers turn to in order to understand people, animals and environments in the past? Furthermore, what methodologies can be utilised (or developed) to maximise knowledge and understanding from these alternative remains? Techniques suggested here include, but are not limited to, aDNA and soil DNA. Shetland’s challenging preservation environments provides optimal case studies for researchers to test and develop new approaches. This is a broad and wide-ranging question and is unlikely to be answered with a single research project; it is encouraged that a series of projects (or PhDs) are designed to tackle it.
SIRFA Case Study: The Lost Township of Broo

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