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Connections and Insularity

Research Questions

SIRFA SH37: Why is Shetland’s Neolithic so different to Orkney’s?

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SIRFA SH37
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It is widely recognised that Shetland’s Neolithic is different to the Orcadian Neolithic. How well can this be evidenced? Does Shetland exhibit an entirely distinct identity from Orkney so early on in human history of these islands or are there some links and connections? Connections or insularity from Orkney’s Neolithic – why is this the case? Additionally, how should Fair Isle be integrated into a wider understanding of the Northern Isles and the North Sea during this period. Current evidence suggests that Fair Isle’s Neolithic aligns with Shetland rather than Orkney. Were Shetland’s Neolithic affinities with Ireland rather than Scotland (eg: chambered cairn types) and if so – why? Whilst appearing primarily as theoretical, address these questions will also likely benefit from further data through dedicated survey work and with a potential later focus on long-term excavation efforts. This is a very broad and wide-ranging question and is not likely to be answered with a single research project; it is encouraged that a series of projects (or PhDs) are designed to tackle it. In a developer-funded context, the research significance of dating and other post-excavation work needs to be emphasised, in addition to the accurate and thorough recording of structures and material culture of this period.

SIRFA SH38: What were Shetland’s Neolithic boats like?

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SIRFA SH38
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Boats from the Neolithic are rare, and none have yet been found in Shetland. This is likely due to the poor preservation conditions. However, seafaring was likely an integral aspect of Neolithic Island life. What did Neolithic boats look like? How large were they? What materials were they made of? What was the availability of these materials? What were the practicalities of getting to and from Shetland in a boat during this period? Was seafaring seasonal? Where there any differences in boat sizes or types when trading, travelling, fishing, or hunting? Finally, were there any major differences between Neolithic seafaring technology and Mesolithic seafaring technology? More reliable coastline modelling and a clearer picture of the palaeoclimate will also be important for understanding the necessary conditions for seafaring in and around Shetland during the Neolithic. What were the waters around Shetland like during the Neolithic in terms of storminess, fetch and distance for example? The use of experimental archaeology for this area of research is highly encouraged. Public engagement through such work is also recommended. In a developer-funded context, opportunistic discoveries of remains potentially related to seafaring should be considered a priority.

SIRFA SH39: Did new or different populations arrive and settle in Shetland during the Neolithic?

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SIRFA SH39
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The exploration of this topic is reliant on the increased ability to retrieve Neolithic skeletal remains (human and animal). If appropriate material is available, can DNA studies be used to expand our understanding of population influxes to Shetland and to evidence the arrival of new or different people during this period? This research question is unlikely to be answered through a single research project; it is encouraged that a series of projects (or PhDs) are designed to tackle it. Wider research funding to support ancient DNA studies will likely be necessary. In a developer-funded context, the recovery and analysis of human and animal remains from this period should be considered a high priority.

SIRFA SH41: Why is Shetland’s material culture so different from that of the Neolithic elsewhere across the UK?

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SIRFA SH41
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Why is Shetland’s material culture so different from that of the Neolithic elsewhere across the UK? Were there influences from further afield? Why are Shetland knives not found outside Shetland? Shetland’s pottery styles are also different, and even the Beaker pottery is derivative. No stone balls have been found in Shetland. However, the beautiful and labour-intensive Shetland knives and axes made from the North Roe felsite demonstrate that life was not all about subsistence. Shetland’s material culture appears to be as insular as its settlement and funerary monuments. Reassessment of existing datasets, reports, archives and collections, from both inside of Shetland and further afield is required, together with new programmes of material analysis. Research programmes, including PhD studies, are the most obvious root for the synthetic work which would need to be undertaken here. In a developer-funded context, the research significance of post-excavation and contextual research needs to be emphasised.

SIRFA SH48: How do Shetland’s burnt mounds compare with Orcadian and Hebridean burnt mounds?

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SIRFA SH48
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Burnt mounds are found across the British Isles, including across Shetland where they are seemingly abundant. During the 1990s, the Shetland Burnt Mounds Project established a programme of survey and excavation examining over 20 burnt mound sites (Anthony 2004; Moore and Wilson 1999; 2000). Key excavations include Tangwick (Moore and Wilson 1999), Cruester (Moore and Wilson, 2000; 2001 and 2008) as well as a series of burnt mound investigations in South Nesting (Dockrill et al 1998). Synthesis, re-evaluation, further dating and experimental work on burnt mounds can be found in two recent doctoral theses (Anthony 2004; Doughton 2014). Burnt mounds are probably better studied in Shetland than anywhere else in Scotland. There is potential however, for enhancing our interpretation of this dataset, specifically by bringing a more holistic and comparative perspective to current interpretations. There is still a lack of consensus on what these sites were, how they were used and what they represented and meant to prehistoric communities. The burnt mounds in the Outer Hebrides and Orkney radically differ from one another; how do Shetland’s burnt mounds compare? Do they share characteristics with either of these groups, or do they present a third regional variation on the burnt mound theme? Work to date suggests that Shetland’s burnt mounds have small cellular structures under them, comparable with Liddle (Osbister) in Orkney. How do the burnt mounds across these three areas compare chronologically? Does the distribution of known burnt mounds differ between these places and what does this suggest about their use? Further, systematic radiocarbon dating and the utilisation of data from existing excavations should be an integral part of this work. In a develop-funded context, the research significance of dating and other post-excavation work needs to be emphasised, in addition to the accurate and thorough recording of structures and material culture.

SIRFA SH50: What does a Bronze Age site-based chronology look like for Shetland?

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SIRFA SH50
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For Shetland, the overall chronology of known Bronze Age sites remains sketchy; where are the early, middle and later Bronze Age sites and how did the structure of the wider Bronze Age landscape change over time? In order to gain a clearer understanding of the Bronze Age and the development of the Bronze Age landscape across Shetland, a better chronology of known sites needs to be established and synthesised. Once created, how does Shetland’s Bronze Age chronology compare to Orkney and the Outer Hebrides’ Bronze Ages? Researchers need to be mindful to the identification of multi-period structures and/or site reuse within chronological frameworks. This is of particular importance and relevance when studying transitionary periods, and it is hoped that this will allow for a clearer understanding of the arrival of new cultures, religions, and technologies. These are complex questions that is unlikely to be addressed fully within a single research project; it is encouraged that a series of projects (or PhDs) are designed to tackle it. These questions would likely benefit from synthesising grey, published and unpublished literature, in addition to data and knowledge collated by museums. Although a chronology for funerary sites and burnt mounds has made progress in recent years, in terms of domestic architecture and land use new dating evidence is desperately needed. Dedicated survey work to increase known sites, as well as excavation work will clearly be crucial in moving these questions forward, alongside dedicated programmes of scientific dating. In a developer context, the research significance of dating and other post-excavation work needs to be emphasised as well as the potential for survey, evaluation and monitoring work to greatly enhance Bronze Age datasets.

SIRFA SH54: What was the structure of Shetland’s Early Bronze Age exchange network?

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SIRFA SH54
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Currently, it remains poorly understood how Shetland featured in wider Early Bronze Age exchange (or trade) networks. Likewise, understanding of internal trade networks during this period is limited. Where was the starting point for exchange and trade routes from and to Shetland? How far did these networks extend? What was transported and traded along these routes? Further, is it possible to determine if these networks interlinked with different settlements and locales within Shetland? It is anticipated that new methodologies will be developed or ‘transferred’ from other disciplines to further this research. Increasing the dataset for Shetland’s Early Bronze will undoubtedly help address these questions more fully. Is it possible to find out where tin and copper was being sourced from during this period? Dedicated survey work to increase known sites, as well as excavation work will clearly be crucial in moving these questions forward, alongside dedicated programmes of scientific dating. In a developer-funded context, the research significance of dating and other post-excavation work needs to be emphasised as well as the potential for survey, evaluation and monitoring work to greatly enhance Early Bronze Age datasets.

SIRFA SH60: Did Beaker migration reach Shetland?

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SIRFA SH60
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What evidence is there for Beaker culture arriving in Shetland? Is there Beaker pottery evidence in Shetland? There is some evidence for derivative Beaker-styled pottery (Mason 2018) which tells us something about this transitionary period, but there is clearly more to unpick here. Is there evidence of a population migration during this time? Beaker culture appears to have manifested relatively uniquely in the Outer Hebrides, is this also the case for Shetland? If this is the case, then what was the ‘Shetlandic Beaker Culture’ like? How does it manifest in the archaeological record? It is anticipated that primary steps towards this research area will involve surveying and/or the use of existing survey data to locate potential sites, in addition to excavations and the study of museum collections. In a developer-funded context, the research significance of dating and other post-excavation work needs to be emphasised as well as the potential for survey, evaluation and monitoring work to greatly enhance known Beaker sites.

SIRFA SH61: What were Bronze Age boats in Shetland like?

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SIRFA SH61
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As with earlier periods, there has yet to be any direct evidence for Bronze Age boats in Shetland. Nevertheless, it is assumed that boats were used during this period. What did they look like and what were they made of? How big were they? Did they differ in any way to boats used in the Neolithic or Mesolithic? Had some of the practicalities of getting to and from Shetland changed since these previous eras? Is there evidence to suggest changes in marine resource exploitation during this period? Were there notable shifts in seafaring requirements; in fishing technology or species, in importing/exporting materials, or wider social or political connections? What about the availability of materials for making boats, such as wood; did this change into or through the Bronze Age with potential impacts on the types of boats that were made? It is suggested experimental archaeological approaches are considered alongside more traditional techniques, such as palaeoecology, palaeoclimatology and physical archaeological evidence from excavations. It is likely that further dedicated survey work, as well as opportunities discoveries and those via developer-funded work, will enhance datasets. The use of experimental archaeology for this area of research is highly encouraged. Public engagement through such work is also recommended. In a developer-funded context, opportunistic discoveries of remains potentially related to seafaring should be considered a priority.

SIRFA SH62: Did new or different populations arrive and settle in Shetland at the beginning of the Bronze Age?

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SIRFA SH62
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Is it possible to detect the arrival of new people associated with the Beaker Culture and the beginning of a recognisable Bronze Age through the use of stable isotope and DNA analysis? Can these scientific techniques be better deployed to expand our understanding of population influxes to Shetland and to evidence the arrival of new or different people during this period? The exploration of this topic is reliant on the increased ability to retrieve Early Bronze Age skeletal remains (human and animal) – identifying, excavating and dating human remains of this period is therefore a first crucial step towards addressing these questions. Thereafter, programmes of radiocarbon dating, alongside stable isotope analysis and ancient DNA studies are considered to be fruitful ways forward. In a developer-funded context, the significance of any potential Bronze Age human remains should be emphasised, as well as the need for funded post-excavation work.

SIRFA SH64: What more can broch architecture and settlement layout suggest about Shetlandic Iron Age cultural identities?

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SIRFA SH64
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Brochs are a major feature of Shetland’s Iron Age. Although, Shetland’s broch sites share many architectural and layout traits, there are nevertheless levels of variation throughout the archipelago. How and to what degree do Shetland’s broch sites vary in terms of their architecture and settlement layout? Furthermore, is there still more to glean from apparent variations with regard to the relationship been monumental architecture and Shetlandic identities during the Iron Age. Were the settlements around Shetland’s brochs, the so called ‘broch villages’, the norm or did they emerge in more exceptional circumstances? What about the apparent different between Hebridean and Northern Isles broch building– is this a factor primarily of different building materials and levels of preservation or are there other explanations for seemingly divergent architectures and settlement layouts between these places? Are variations in architectural manifestations of different identities and can further research inform on Iron Age identities more broadly? This is a broad and wide-ranging question and is unlikely to be answered with a single research project; it is encouraged that a series of projects (or PhDs) are designed to tackle it. This question encourages the synthesis of grey, published, and unpublished literature. New theoretical approaches are also encouraged. In a developer-funded context, the research significance of dating broch sites and other post-excavation work needs to be emphasised, in addition to the accurate and thorough recording of structures and material culture.

SIRFA SH67: How do Shetland’s souterrains compare with wider evidence for these enigmatic structures?

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SIRFA SH67
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Souterrains are found across Scotland and Ireland. However, regional diversity across this class of monument also needs to be better understood, as does their general form and function. How do Shetland’s souterrains compare with those from outwith this archipelago? Are there recognisable architectural or layout features in Shetland’s souterrains that distinguish them from examples elsewhere? How were Shetland’s souterrains used? What was the purpose of underground structures in Shetland? Most of Scotland’s souterrains are understood to be Iron Age in date. When were the Shetland souterrains built and over what period were they used? How do souterrains fit into our broader understandings of Shetland’s Iron Age?

SIRFA SH69: Did Shetland’s later Iron Age communities identify with a wider ‘Pictish’ identity?

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SIRFA SH69
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Did communities across Shetland regard themselves as part of a wider ‘Pictish’ identity during the Late Iron Age? Does this suggest that more localised and regional identities took priority in Shetland? Or was ‘Pictish’ identity in Shetland expressed in other ways? Did all Later Iron Age communities across Shetland identify in the same way? How did local and regional identities and wider political allegiances change throughout Shetland’s later Iron Age? These questions would benefit from new theoretical and more holistic approaches. Reanalysis and synthesis of existing datasets will be key, including reanalysis of museums and archive collections. However, continued recording of new material from both developer-funded and research targeted survey and excavation, has the potential to expand knowledge around these broad research gaps.

SIRFA SH70: How was Shetland’s monumental Iron Age landscape structured?

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SIRFA SH70
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Was there any patterning to the types of locations selected for broch building and monumental place-making within Shetland’s Iron Age landscapes? How do broch sites relate to wider resource locales, such as potential stone quarries, freshwater sources, agricultural land, natural landing bays, etc? What of the relationship between broch sites, and the overall chronology and structure of Shetland’s monumental Iron Age landscapes? Fojut (1989) and Smith (2004) have made inroads into this, but there is lots of potential to take these questions forward. Exploring the placing and wider locale of brochs within the Iron Age landscape has great investigative potential. Enhancing earlier landscape studies with new landscape and walk-over survey work, collecting, using and analysing remote sensing data, digital and non-digital mapping work and computer modelling and landscape simulation work are all likely to be fruitful ways forward. Within a developer-funded context, survey results in previously investigated or poorly investigated landscapes has the potential to bring new data and new perspectives to these questions.

SIRFA SH71: How extensive was iron manufacture and usage across Iron Age Shetland?

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SIRFA SH71
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Very few artefacts of iron or copper have been found from Iron Age contexts across Shetland. Why is this? Does the lack of iron artefacts suggest an absence of metal working skills in Shetland’s Iron Age? There is evidence of bronze and silver working from some of Shetland’s later Iron Age village. But few metal working sites of this period have been excavated and evidence for smelting is thin on the ground. Alternatively, could the apparent lack of metal work reflect cultural avoidance of these materials or perhaps a culture predisposed to recycling metalwork? Where are the metal ore resources in Shetland? Potentially copper and bog iron are available locally. Does the lack of the former explain the absence of evidence for the latter? Whether manufactured locally or imported as finished, what other explanations are there for the general lack of iron and other metals in Shetland’s Iron Age assemblages?

SIRFA SH76: How extensive and wide-reaching were Shetland’s Iron Age trade networks?

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SIRFA SH76
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Current evidence points to several substantial production centres across Iron Age Shetland; were these production centres purely for local consumption or did they develop in response to external trade? If Shetlandic material was consumed outwith these islands, then who were Iron Age communities trading with and where were materials exported to? How far away did Iron Age trade contacts reach from Shetland? Is there evidence for direct trade contacts with parts of Romanised Britain, for example, or were these second- or third-hand imports?

SIRFA SH77: Did the importation of domestic animal species into Shetland continue into Later Prehistoric periods?

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SIRFA SH77
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Sheep, cattle and horses were not native to Shetland but were instead brought to these islands as domesticated species during the Neolithic. However, is there evidence to suggest that domestic species continued to be imported to Shetland into and throughout Later Prehistory? A better grasp of the origin and species management of later prehistoric domesticates has the potential to further our understanding of Shetland’s Iron Age and Bronze Age economies and wider political connections. It is recommended that archaeological sciences are utilised to explore this topic, most notably stable isotope analysis (both mobility and dietary). In a developer-funded context, the research significance of faunal material needs to be emphasised.

SIRFA SH84: How extensive and deep-rooted was Christianity across Shetland prior to and during the Early Norse period?

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SIRFA SH84
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There are still significant gaps in current understanding of religious and spiritual practices in Shetland following conversion to Christianity. What evidence is there for Christianisation prior to the Norse arrival? Is there evidence indicating the continuity of pre-existing belief systems (both Norse and otherwise)? To what extent did the local populace across Shetland practice Christianity during the Norse period and what did these practices look like? What did Shetland’s early Christian landscape look like? Relatedly, how many pre-reformation sites across Shetland have Norse origins?

SIRFA SH86: What impact did the location of steatite resources have on related industrial activity during the Norse period?

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SIRFA SH86
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Steatite was clearly an important resource during the Norse period, enabling the development of key industries and trade connections. However, steatite is only present in very specific locations across Shetland. How did the distribution of raw materials impact on the development of related industries during the Norse period?? How were Shetland’s industrial and economic landscapes structured with regard to Steatite extraction, production, manufacture and trade? How did the location of steatite resources impact the development and wealth of Norse settlements? Can materials be identified to specific extraction locations and were there differences in quality between locales? If so, how did these differences impact wider steatite economy across Shetland? It is likely that this these questions will benefit from multi-disciplinary approaches. Working with geologists in particular will be of value, likely alongside survey, excavation and artefact analysis. In a commercial context, the research significance of dating and other post-excavation work should be emphasised.

SIRFA SH89: To what extent were Shetland’s ‘native’ populations replaced during the early historic period?

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SIRFA SH89
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Modern DNA work has shown clear genetic similarities between current populations living in Shetland with those in Scandinavia. What does this information suggest about historic links between Shetland and Scandinavia? To what extent does this evidence support interpretations of population replacement from across the North Sea during Shetland’s early historic period? What about populations from mainland Scotland, associated with ‘Pictish’ material culture – to what extent did Shetland see the arrival of new people, as well as new material cultural and cultural practices? How can DNA studies contribute to these age-old research questions? Do modern DNA results complement aDNA evidence? How can DNA research, both on ancient and modern samples, enhance an understanding of Shetland’s early historic populations based on material culture and placenames studies? What role is there for stable isotope studies to further contribute to questions about population origins and replacement during Shetland’s early historic period?

SIRFA SH90: What characterised Shetland’s pre-Norse seafaring technology?

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SIRFA SH90
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Norse seafaring technology was a significant reason for the success of the diaspora spread; but how did native Shetlander seafaring technology compare? What did pre-Norse boats look like in Shetland? What were they made of? Is there a clear lineage between prehistoric boat designs and those used in early historic period? There is very little archaeological evidence fo boats of any period in Shetland. In the continued absence of direct archaeological evidence for pre-Norse, early historic period boats and boat technology, multi-disciplinary approaches are encouraged, specifically experimental archaeology and ethnography. Within a developer-funded context, any evidence for early historic-period boats or boat technology needs to be considered a high priority for detailed recording, preservation and post-excavation work.

SIRFA SH91: How did medieval disease epidemics impact Shetland?

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SIRFA SH91
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Famously, the Black Death wiped out one third of Europe’s population. Whilst not so devastating, later plague outbreaks were no less terrifying and deadly. Relatively little, however, is known about the impacts of medieval plague epidemics on Shetland’s populations, communities, landscapes and society. Indeed, it is unknown whether all major medieval plague epidemics, known to ravage other parts of Europe, even reached Shetland. Given that there are very few historic references to medieval disease outbreaks in Shetland, how can archaeological evidence enhance knowledge and understanding of this topic? Does Shetland’s medieval burial evidence point to periods of disease outbreak? Is there evidence for periods of medieval settlement contraction or changes in subsistence strategy that might have occurred as a result of disease epidemics across the islands? If Shetland was spared some medieval disease outbreaks, then why was this? Can archaeological research identify indirect impacts of major disease outbreaks elsewhere in Europe, even where these didn’t reach Shetland? Interdisciplinary approaches are almost certainly the way forward here. A more detailed understanding of Shetland’s medieval settlements and burial sites will undoubtably help address these more specific research questions. In a developer-funded context, the significance of medieval remains to address questions about Shetlandic responses to plague outbreaks needs to be emphasised. Alongside this the importance of dating and post-excavation work.

SIRFA SH92: What was the effect of international conflict on Shetland during the Medieval period?

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SIRFA SH92
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The impact of international conflicts – both involving Scotland and not – on Shetland is relatively understudied. Undoubtedly events such as the Wars of the Roses and the English occupation of Ireland had far reaching effects, but did they have any noticeable impact on Shetlandic life? What were these effects? Interdisciplinary approaches are almost certainly the way forward here. These questions would benefit from new theoretical and more holistic approaches. Reanalysis and synthesis of existing datasets will be key, including reanalysis of museums and archive collections. A more detailed understanding of Shetland’s medieval settlements will underpin new research. In a developer-funded context, the significance of medieval remains to address questions about Shetlandic responses to international conflict needs to be emphasised. Alongside this the importance of dating and post-excavation work.

SIRFA SH98: How does the annexing of Shetland to the Scottish Crown in 1472 register archaeologically?

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SIRFA SH98
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How did the annexing of Shetland to King James III of Scotland impact Shetlandic communities during the 15th century? Does this historically documented transfer of ownership and power register archaeologically? Are there recognisable impacts on material culture? Do we see evidence of major changes in the way people lived and identified themselves? Can an understanding of the relationship between political allegiance and everyday lives and identities in the 15th century, inform how we view major transferrals of power in Shetland’s earlier periods, such as the Pictish and Norse periods?

SIRFA SH99: What do shipwrecks off Shetland’s coast tell us about changes in maritime activity throughout the post-medieval era?

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SIRFA SH99
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Where are the shipwrecks and what do the remains of these vessels suggest about the nature and purpose of post-medieval maritime activities associated with Shetland? What is known about post-medieval shipwrecking within Shetland’s waters? How frequently were ships or boats wrecked in Shetland’s waters and how did this change over time? Furthermore, what does the distribution of shipwrecks around Shetland tell us? It is recommended that extensive underwater survey work and desk-based research is carried out during the initial stages of this research.

SIRFA SH113: What does artefact provenance suggest about changing connections to and from Shetland over time?

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SIRFA SH113
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As has been demonstrated elsewhere (e.g. mainland Britain’s Roman sites) artefact and material provenance can be invaluable in providing a picture of changing economic, social and political connections in the past. This type of holistic approach to artefact provenance has not yet been fully explored in a Shetlandic context. What can the analysis of artefacts found in Shetland suggest about economic, social and political connections outwith the archipelago? How did these connections change over time?

SIRFA SH114: What specialist navigation knowledge was required by prehistoric and historic seafarers in and around Shetland?

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SIRFA SH114
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There are substantial gaps in our understanding of prehistoric and historic seafaring practices, including offshore and deep-sea fishing, inter-island travel and wider North Sea trade and communication. In order to achieve a more detailed understanding of the relationship between Shetland’s past communities and the sea, it is suggested that we need better insight of the types of local knowledge and expertise that would have been required by seafarers prior to modern navigation systems. How dangerous would it have been for those navigating Shetland’s waters without specialist, local knowledge? What were the risks? Where would natural landing bays likely have been in the past? What areas of the sea and coast would people have needed or wanted to avoid? What was the likely impact of wind direction, tides, currents and seasonal weather on the navigability of certain areas of Shetland’s coast and surrounding waters? It is suggested that interdisciplinary approaches will be key to more fully addressing these questions, for example, information via oral historians, historians and anthropologists. Moreover, working with and consulting local communities will be crucial, specifically local fishing communities, as well as experts such as local ferry operators and experienced sailors.

SIRFA SH115: When was money first used in Shetland?

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SIRFA SH115
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The introduction and use of money encapsulates important economic and political changes in past societies. Yet, it is still unclear when money and a monetary economy were first introduced in Shetland. Is it possible to determine when money was first used in Shetland? What are the oldest coins from Shetland, and can we determine how and why early coinage ended up here? Relatedly, can we determine how early coinage was used – at what point did coinage become currency as opposed to valuable artefact? When did money become the dominant method of economic exchange across the Shetland islands? Was this process gradual or was there a rapid shift? Furthermore, how does the evidence for monetary introduction in Shetland contribute to the metallist/chartlist debate about the origin of money (Baron and Millhauser 2021). It is likely that archaeological researchers will benefit from working with historians and economic anthropologists. Access to coin collections in local and national museums, as well as private collections, is likely to be vital, as well as working with and advising local metal detectorists on recording methods. In a developer-funded context the value of post-excavation work and scientific dating in order to maximse information from material remains needs emphasising.
SIRFA Case Study: Three Kirks and a Cathedral

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