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Chronology

Research Questions

SIRFA SH3: What was the chronology of the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition across Shetland?

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SIRFA SH3
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Transitionary periods are notoriously tricky to pin down. The Shetlandic Mesolithic-Neolithic transition is especially so, given the lack of known Mesolithic sites or archaeology. When did this transition begin? Do the dates and material culture line up with what is witnessed in Orkney? Or, indeed, elsewhere in Scotland? Additionally, what did this transitionary period look like? Reassessment and reanalysis of existing datasets, reports, archives and collections, alongside new programmes of meaningful scientific dating, are likely ways forward. In a developer-funded context, the research significance of dating and other post-excavation work needs to be emphasised.

SIRFA SH16: What is the earliest evidence for human habitation or activity across Shetland?

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SIRFA SH16
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There has been no evidence found thus far for Palaeolithic activity among the Shetland islands. However, it is not clear whether the lack of evidence is evidence of absence or destruction of Palaeolithic sites in the ensuing centuries. The presence of Palaeolithic sites in Skye (Hardy and Ballin 2024) and Islay (Mithen et al 2015) may indicate that they also exist in the Outer Hebrides. It is likely that this question will be addressed via a combination of targeted survey and opportunistic discoveries via walk-over surveys, archaeological monitoring or evaluation within a developer-funded context and as a result of coastal erosion. Within a developer-funded context the research significance of any potential palaeolithic evidence information should be emphasised.

SIRFA SH21: When was steatite first utilised to temper Neolithic pottery in Shetland?

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SIRFA SH21
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The use of steatite in pottery tempering is highly unusual and specific to Shetland. Is it possible to determine when this practice first came into common use? Was this localised to specific islands/areas, or a Shetland wide practice? Further, does the use of steatite in this manner lend any unusual properties to the ceramics themselves? In other words, is it possible to determine what advantages might be lent to the pottery when using this method? Was the inclusion of steatite deliberate or accidental via local clay sources? How consistent were quantities of steatite tempering is in any given assemblage and across assemblages? Researchers are encouraged to make significant use of museum archive material; further, it is likely that addressing this question will rely on significant improvements in the known pottery chronology. In a developer-funded context, the research significance of material culture needs to be emphasised as well as the value of post-excavation work.

SIRFA SH26: What was the chronology of Shetland’s Neolithic-Bronze Age transition?

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SIRFA SH26
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The timing and chronology of the Neolithic-Bronze Age transition in Shetland is still not fully understood. Through the use of material culture, physical archaeology, radiocarbon dating, Bayesian chronological modelling, and survey work, is it possible to define the length and timing of this transition? Does this differ to elsewhere? Is the transition incremental, or drastic? How should multi-period/re-used sites and structures be integrated into this chronology? It is unlikely that these questions will be addressed via a single project. A series of well-funded projects, almost certainly interdisciplinary and multi-proxy in nature, are likely ways forward. In a developer-funded context, the research significance of dating and other post-excavation work needs to be emphasised.

SIRFA SH27: What was the chronology of felsite production during the Neolithic?

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SIRFA SH27
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Felsite production was clearly a major part of the Neolithic economy. When did it start and end? Were there any shifts or changes in the process of quarrying, processing, or distribution of the felsite? How did this process evolve? Is it possible to map out the distribution routes, quarries, or processing locations and how they changed or evolved through time? Further, based on the example of felsite, is it possible to extrapolate how other major industrial activity was organised or structured? It is unlikely that these questions will be addressed via a single project. A series of well-funded projects, almost certainly interdisciplinary and multi-proxy in nature, are likely ways forward. In a developer-funded context, the research significance of dating and other post-excavation work needs to be emphasised.

SIRFA SH28: What is the chronology of known Neolithic sites?

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SIRFA SH28
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An integrated chronology of Shetlandic Neolithic sites has yet to be created; this would substantially further Neolithic studies in this area. When created, what does this chronology show? A significant aspect of this is considering how unusual or odd features/sites should be integrated into this chronology. This work would require systematic radiocarbon dating, in conjunction with other suitable dating methods. New dating techniques may require development, alternatively the use of, for example, OSL, dendrochronology, sclerochronology, etc may be most suitable for particular site contexts. Archaeomagnetic dating potentially has a significant role in dating domestic settlement in future excavations. It is also recommended that Bayesian chronological modelling is utilised in the building of this chronology. In a developer-funded context, the research significance of dating and other post-excavation work needs to be emphasised.

SIRFA SH49: Was there a Chalcolithic in Shetland?

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SIRFA SH49
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The appearance of a discernible Chalcolithic in Shetland remains unclear. Given that evidence for copper and bronze is scant, is it even an appropriate term to use to describe the earliest metalworking period in Shetland? Instead, is this transitionary period defined more by the continual use of Neolithic pottery styles and techniques and continuity in architecture? There is some evidence for derivative Beaker-styled pottery (Mason 2018) which tells us something about this transitionary period, but there is clearly more to unpick here. More comprehensive assemblages of well dated material culture should help to give a clearer outline to this transitionary period. The use of museum archives and collections will be important for this area of research, as will the application of systematic radiocarbon dating. In a developer-funded context, the research significance of dating and other post-excavation work needs to be emphasised.

SIRFA SH50: What does a Bronze Age site-based chronology look like for Shetland?

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SIRFA SH50
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For Shetland, the overall chronology of known Bronze Age sites remains sketchy; where are the early, middle and later Bronze Age sites and how did the structure of the wider Bronze Age landscape change over time? In order to gain a clearer understanding of the Bronze Age and the development of the Bronze Age landscape across Shetland, a better chronology of known sites needs to be established and synthesised. Once created, how does Shetland’s Bronze Age chronology compare to Orkney and the Outer Hebrides’ Bronze Ages? Researchers need to be mindful to the identification of multi-period structures and/or site reuse within chronological frameworks. This is of particular importance and relevance when studying transitionary periods, and it is hoped that this will allow for a clearer understanding of the arrival of new cultures, religions, and technologies. These are complex questions that is unlikely to be addressed fully within a single research project; it is encouraged that a series of projects (or PhDs) are designed to tackle it. These questions would likely benefit from synthesising grey, published and unpublished literature, in addition to data and knowledge collated by museums. Although a chronology for funerary sites and burnt mounds has made progress in recent years, in terms of domestic architecture and land use new dating evidence is desperately needed. Dedicated survey work to increase known sites, as well as excavation work will clearly be crucial in moving these questions forward, alongside dedicated programmes of scientific dating. In a developer context, the research significance of dating and other post-excavation work needs to be emphasised as well as the potential for survey, evaluation and monitoring work to greatly enhance Bronze Age datasets.

SIRFA SH51: How can Shetland’s Bronze Age pottery chronology be improved?

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SIRFA SH51
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The use of pottery for relative dating has long been an integral part of archaeological work. It is therefore of utmost importance that ceramic chronologies can be provided and improved. Is this possible to do in Shetland? Where there appear to be periods that are aceramic, alternative relative dating methods must be carefully considered. Further, what alterative materials and technologies were utilised during these relatively aceramic periods and why? The use of museum archives and collections is highly recommended, alongside dedicated dating programmes. To fully address the potential of this question requires new thinking and the development of innovative approaches. In a developer-funded context, the research significance of material culture, dating and other post-excavation work needs to be emphasised.

SIRFA SH115: When was money first used in Shetland?

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SIRFA SH115
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The introduction and use of money encapsulates important economic and political changes in past societies. Yet, it is still unclear when money and a monetary economy were first introduced in Shetland. Is it possible to determine when money was first used in Shetland? What are the oldest coins from Shetland, and can we determine how and why early coinage ended up here? Relatedly, can we determine how early coinage was used – at what point did coinage become currency as opposed to valuable artefact? When did money become the dominant method of economic exchange across the Shetland islands? Was this process gradual or was there a rapid shift? Furthermore, how does the evidence for monetary introduction in Shetland contribute to the metallist/chartlist debate about the origin of money (Baron and Millhauser 2021). It is likely that archaeological researchers will benefit from working with historians and economic anthropologists. Access to coin collections in local and national museums, as well as private collections, is likely to be vital, as well as working with and advising local metal detectorists on recording methods. In a developer-funded context the value of post-excavation work and scientific dating in order to maximse information from material remains needs emphasising.

SIRFA SH124: What is the chronology of peat development and spread across Shetland?

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SIRFA SH124
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Current thinking places peat and blanket bog development across Shetland from the mid to late Neolithic. But a more refined understanding of peat development and blanket bog spread across Shetland is still needed. More specifically, the impact of peat development and spread on settled landscapes across Shetland. The chronology of ongoing peat development and spread is integral to our understanding how prehistoric and historic populations moved through, used and abandoned parts of Shetland’s landscapes (see for example Swindles et al 2019). There is a need for new and expanded methods and approaches in order to more fully address these questions. What new methodologies could be utilised for better sampling and dating peat deposits? In a developer-funded context, the research significance of environmental sampling from peat deposits and the value of scientific dating needs to be emphasised
SIRFA Case Study: The Lost Township of Broo

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