It has been suggested that the area of the Wall (or at least the Forth) served as an effective border in the early medieval period, separating the Anglo-Saxons and Picts in the east, while to the west the successive British kingdoms of Alt Clut and Strathclyde straddled the Wall (Woolf 2007, 4–7; Fraser 2009, passim, but especially 255, 272, 313 and 377). Unfortunately, we still know little of the activities in this area, and the Wall’s possible role remains uncertain and largely ignored in historical discussions. However, Maldonado has begun to pull together strands of archaeological, historical and place-name evidence for the Wall corridor during the early medieval period. He suggests that the territorial units in the Forth-Clyde zone were centred on the Wall, rather than using its line as a boundary (Maldonado 2015). Given the way that the Wall cuts a swathe across central Scotland, it is perhaps surprising that it hasn’t dominated the later development of the landscape (Jones 2019).
One important discovery that suggests early medieval reuse of the Wall line as a power centre is the 9th century timber hall uncovered just north of the Military Way in Callendar Park, interpreted as the residence of the Thanes of Callendar (Bailey 2007). A large timber structure identified some 150m east of the fort at Mumrills may fall into a similar category. Though of uncertain date, some of its postholes were packed with reused Roman masonry (Smith 1939). Interestingly, the only evidence for early medieval burials in the Wall zone comes from within the annexe of the construction camp at Little Kerse, where a small, long-cist cemetery was identified (McCord and Tait 1978).
There is surprisingly little evidence of post-Roman reuse of the Wall fortifications. A timber building and associated industrial activity, dated by radiocarbon to the 8th century AD, is attested overlying the infilled outer ditch of the fort at Falkirk (Bailey 2021, 445–6). However, there are a number of sites where medieval power centres can be found at or nearby Roman fortifications, though it is difficult to demonstrate conscious choice of the fortified site rather than the attraction of the strategic location (Maldonado 2015, 235–6). For example, castles or mottes were constructed in the high and later medieval period at Inveravon, Watling Lodge, Seabegs, Kirkintilloch and Cadder, while others are known in the wider area. These have not received serious archaeological attention, nor do they figure in broader historical analyses. Similarly, little attention has been given to nearby medieval settlements and villages, including that located at Kinneil, which was removed in the 17th century. Some attention has been given to the medieval settlement at Carriden (Bailey 1997), but this remains secondary to Roman period concerns and has not been thoroughly contextualised historically.
The Wall corridor also played an important role in the Industrial Revolution, with the formation of the Carron Iron Works, the construction of the canals, the steam engine experiments by James Watt at Kinneil, increased mining and factory production, and the building of the railways. The creation of large estates and improvements in agriculture had an impact on the upstanding remains, while the Industrial Revolution led to the growth of factories in central Scotland along with the associated expansion of housing provision. These activities did much to alter the landscape, though in the process landowners often took steps to ensure the survival of stretches of the Antonine Wall, including the Callendar Park Estate and the Gartshore Estate, where Bar Hill is located. These activities also both uncovered and destroyed Roman remains along the Wall. This is an important context for investigations of antiquarian activities and the transition to more formalised archaeological societies and exploration. There have been some attempts to explore comparative perspectives and contrasting valuations of the Wall and later canals in the late 18th and 19th centuries (Keppie 2012, 93–9; Rohl 2014, 139–47, 301–08). However, there is considerable potential for new research in these areas that can help to reveal how the frontier has come to take on its current form.
Research issues
- During any excavations ensure that the top layers are examined for any evidence of post-Roman occupation or use.
- A coordinated review of archaeological data for the medieval castles, villages and churches should be undertaken to provide information relating to the Antonine Wall, using the charters and documents catalogued by the recent People of Medieval Scotland project (http://www.poms.ac.uk/).
- Assess the adaptive reuse of Roman material in post-Roman sites, such as churches, building on the Hadrian’s Wall Community Archaeology Project (WallCAP).
- Undertake further assessment of place-names, estates and later land divisions on and around the Wall for information relating to the Antonine Wall and potential links between it and the subsequent development of the area.
- Explore ways in which the Wall appears in later stories and myths of the area.