- The Roman empire stretched across much of the known ancient world, encompassing a vast area from northern Britain to the Middle East, from central Europe to North Africa and around the shores of the Mediterranean. Roman citizens had access to all manner of foodstuffs produced across the region, from Mediterranean produce like olive oil and wine, citrus fruits and figs, to locally produced foodstuffs like meat and dairy and grain crops. We know a lot about Roman tastes and the Roman diet from the writings they left behind.
- The availability of many of these items was, however, dependent on two things. Firstly, the ability to transport them, and secondly, by the amount of wealth required to procure them. Both factors would have meant significant variations across the empire. A different range of foodstuffs would be widely available to residents of Rome than could be accessed from a military installation in South West Scotland. Fresh fruit and vegetables could not survive the long sea and road trips required to move them and would have to be procured locally. Processed foods and drinks such as wine, olive oil and the famous garum – fermented fish sauce – could be transported over enormous distances as they were shipped in large ceramic vessels called amphorae. Finds of amphorae are rare but not unknown in the region: a sherd derived from a South Spanish amphora was recovered from the fort at Drumlanrig, for example. Again, the ability to procure such exotic items would depend very much on the levels of wealth and tastes of the potential purchaser.
- The diet of the rank-and-file legionary soldier or auxiliary soldier was far removed from that of wealthier Roman citizens. Like the poor citizens of Rome, the bulk of their diet was made up of bread. They would each receive a daily ration of three imperial pounds of grain, which they would mill into flour themselves, then make into bread, which would then be baked on site. A group of ten men would share accommodation and the tasks involved in preparing and cooking the daily meal. As well as milling the grain and baking the bread, the men would also be required to build their own oven. Roman forts and camps are littered with these ovens, which can have a characteristic dumbbell shape. Examples have been found at Beattock (Bankfoot) and Raeburnfoot. Sometimes, these structures are the only evidence which survives of a Roman temporary camp site. This was the case with the recent discovery of a Roman temporary camp at Ayr Academy. Their bread would have been washed down with a drink known as posca. This was a mixture of water and vinegar, mixed with herbs and spices to improve the taste.
- Feeding the Roman army was a gargantuan task, both financially and logistically. It is estimated that the Roman army would consume annually around 154 to 395 tonnes of wheat (Kehne 2007). Six-row barley could be produced locally, but wheat would probably be imported. Fodder was also required for baggage animals and riding horses, and food was needed for servants (ibid). In some wheat-producing areas, at least some, if not all of this requirement might have been produced locally, but the climate of South West Scotland was not conducive to growing wheat. Barley and oats would have been grown more reliably and successfully instead. Charred grains have been recovered from ovens on Roman military sites, giving us some idea of what was consumed here. Carronbridge, for example, revealed finds of wheat and oats, while Drumlanrig produced spelt wheat, hulled barley and oats. It is not known whether the soldiers’ diets would exclusively have used wheat, imported as necessary, or a mixture of wheat and barley, depending on what was available. The acquisition of local barley would still have been important for use as animal feed, with varying sizes of cavalry units augmenting the garrisons on many Roman military sites. Baggage and pack animals like mules or oxen could also have been fed with oats or barley.
- With the army so reliant on grain crops – and wheat in particular – frontier areas like South West Scotland would have been particularly reliant on imported supplies. An efficient and reliable logistical network was crucial, with supplies moved by sea and also by road where necessary. Finds of Roman harbours have so far remained elusive, but there is evidence for potential contender on the Solway at Lantonside near Ward Law with an anchor found at nearby Priestside. On the Clyde coast there are structural remains of uncertain origin at Brigurd Point, near West Kilbride, where sherds from 2nd century AD ring-necked flagons were found at the nearby Poteath Burn. The mouth of the River Irvine has also been put forward as a potential candidate by Kenneth St Joseph (see Miller 1948), its case supported once again by a small number of Roman material culture finds around Irvine including two mid 2nd century coins from within the burgh (Simpson & Simpson 1980).
- The Roman road system in South West Scotland has been investigated and researched in detail – it would have been vital as a means of ensuring that sufficient supplies were moved across inland areas so that troops could be guaranteed their rations. The larger and more permanent installations like Birrens, Carzield, Dalswinton, Drumlanrig, Loudon and Raeburnfoot would also have had custom-built buildings set aside for use as granaries. These rectilinear structures would have had elevated floors set on cross-walls so that air could circulate beneath, keeping the grain from getting damp and mouldy. Raising the floor might also deter rodent activity.
- How much the soldiers’ diet was augmented by meat or other animal-based products is not clear. Soldiers earned a wage, and there was nothing to stop them from spending it on meat or other items, perhaps acquired from traders operating amongst the camp followers, perhaps even acquired locally. Perhaps groups of soldiers – those occupying a single tent or barrack block – could have clubbed together to purchase meat or other luxury items. It is possible, too, that eating meat was restricted to special occasions. If someone had saved enough to dedicate an altar, as an act of devotion or commemoration, then any animal sacrifices would have offered an opportunity for sharing those parts of the carcass not required as an offering. There may also have been opportunities for hunting or even raiding. The exact composition of a soldier’s diet in such circumstances can only be ascertained using research into middens or latrine deposits, but such work has not been undertaken widely in the region, and it is often limited because of issues of survival. Only on rare occasions have sites like Vindolanda in North East England, with its waterlogged deposits and excellent levels of preservation, been able to provide a truly detailed insight into life on a Roman frontier. Some recent work has started to shed more light on the Roman military diet; however, with environmental evidence from Drumlanrig, including the seeds of beetroot and broad beans in addition to the more usual grain component.
- What is apparent from the archaeological work carried out to date on sites like Birrens is that a variety of pottery types were used, broken and discarded in the context of a military fort. Pottery types include black-burnished ware jars, used for cooking or storage, and much finer Samian Ware, the glossy, decorated tableware which would have adorned wealthy and fashionable Roman tables. The presence of Samian ware in particular would suggest that, on some occasions, ostentatious displays of wealth could be and were presented by soldiers serving at the fort. The soldiers in question may have been senior officers who lived a more privileged life than their subordinates. They may also have been better equipped to access a wider range of foodstuffs than those routinely available to their men, allowing them to put on a display commensurate with their wealth and place in society, and commensurate, too, with the high-quality tableware which they were able to acquire for its presentation.