- South West Scotland was ideally placed for trade and commerce during the Early Medieval period, thanks to its central location between the various provinces of Cumbria, Man, Ireland, southern Argyll and Wales (Brooke 1992). There was, however, a dark side to this apparent good fortune, as it meant that the area’s resident population could be targeted by raiders seeking to enrich themselves at the expense of local communities. This could be done through the acquisition of stolen goods or livestock, or even the acquisition of the people themselves, with members of the local population trafficked away as enslaved persons.
- The Roman military occupation of northern England and southern Scotland brought the concept of commodity exchange and the use of coinage into the region, but how quickly this spread and how widely coins were used remains unclear. Coins remain rare across the region throughout the Early Medieval period. One 7th century gold coin – now heavily corroded – has been recovered from the crannog site at Buiston, but it may have been retained as a decorative item rather than a functioning piece of currency (Smart 1985, 67). Aside from that isolated example, there are occasional finds of Northumbrian styca. This slightly later base metal type was minted in York from the 8th century AD onwards. They tend to be recovered on sites or in archaeological levels which are contemporary with Anglian/Northumbrian occupation of the region. This suggests that perhaps the regular use of coinage and the corresponding monetisation of economic transactions came with wider Anglian settlement at sites such as Whithorn and Mote of Mark. One fragmentary example of a 10th century oriental coin from Stevenston Sands near Irvine has been attributed to Viking activity (ibid. 69), on a site which has been put forward as the potential location for a beach market.
- Alternative forms of ‘currency’ may have been used in some circumstances. Several important collections of precious metal objects – buried deep in the ground as hoards – have been recovered in the region to date. The mixed hoard from Talnotrie, on the west flank of Cairnsmore of Fleet, produced objects of silver, gold and copper alloy, and twelve coins (Northumbrian stycas). The metalwork included two silver pins, a silver strap-tag, silver wire, a gold finger-ring, and a broken copper alloy object that may have been a fragmentary cross. This modest discovery contrasts with the massive hoard from Balmaghie (also known as the Galloway hoard). Here, substantial quantities of gold and silver objects, some set with semi-precious stones, were recovered from a single location where they appear to have been buried as separate packages. Again, many of the items had been fragmented, suggesting that they may have been broken up to be used as bullion.
- This notion of fragmenting precious metal objects as a means of dividing spoils and loot has given rise to the term ‘hack silver,’ where individual objects are broken up into regular sizes (and weights). This ensured that any acquired wealth was allocated fairly amongst a particular group, and it is a practice particularly associated with Norse or Viking activity. The hoards may have been buried at a specific point in the landscape by a mobile group who intended to retrieve their booty at a subsequent point. Presumably, the fact that they never recovered their treasure meant that they never returned. The fact that they were unable to do so meant that the metal objects could never be recycled, leaving us with a greater insight into the variety of objects that were in circulation and use at the time.
- Whether it was through the use of commodity exchange as we understand it, or through more traditional reciprocal methods of gift exchange or barter (or even via a combination or hybrid of these forms), it is clear that trade networks did exist. These networks enabled those with sufficient wealth to obtain a range of exotic items, sometimes sourced from as far away as the Mediterranean. Early levels at Whithorn revealed Mediterranean amphorae (‘B’ ware – late 5th to mid 6th century AD) and western Gaulish pottery (‘E’ ware – late 6th to early 8th century AD) (Hill and Kachaski 1990). The presence of the amphorae in particular infers that the liquid transported within these vessels – probably wine – was consumed on the site. ‘E’ ware has also been recovered from Trusty’s Hill (Toolis and Bowles 2013, 44). Finds of Merovingian glass claw beakers may also be linked with the consumption of wine.
- These exotic items appear to be concentrated on certain high-status sites. The ecclesiastical settlement at Whithorn and the nucleated fort at the Mote of Mark are particularly rich in such finds. Occasional finds of porphyry, sourced from the Mediterranean, are often found in later Medieval contexts, but fragments also occur on sites like Whithorn and Barhobble) which appear to have had Early Medieval origins. William Cormack suggested that these later Medieval finds of porphyry represent residual material originally brought to the location in the Early Medieval period (Cormack 1989).
- Even modest items of material culture could sometimes be manufactured from raw materials alien to the region. James Williams (Williams 1967) argued that a group of sandstone spindle whorls recovered from Anglian sites were manufactured from a non-local stone, but the mechanisms behind the movement and acquisition of these items remain uncertain.
- Some exotic items were manufactured from organic materials and the poor survival of these objects in normal soil conditions means we are left with very little insight into what was circulating at the time. One rare exception is the organic material surviving in the hoard from Balmaghie. The metalwork had been wrapped in discrete packages made from wool, leather and linen, traces of which were preserved within the corrosion products of the metal. Some exotic materials were recovered, including a particular style of woven linen which may have originated in workshops located in today’s southern Germany. There were also several items of silk, including what appeared to be a lined pouch of a silk fabric known as ‘samite’ (Rogers 2019, 10) and several twisted braids, one of which incorporated gold thread (ibid., 18). The samite would have been produced in the Islamic workshops of North Africa and the Middle East and would have travelled to Europe either across the Mediterranean or perhaps via the Baltic Sea routes.
- The use of coinage and the adoption of a commodity-based economy infers a situation where goods are exchanged by strangers, with all social debt cancelled at the point of transaction. The way in which these transactions were accomplished may have varied. As yet, there were no formally organised towns. Perhaps vendors worked on a peripatetic basis, travelling between sites and trading their wares at high-status sites or in places where centres of population had developed. High-status items like Gaulish pottery, amphorae and glass beakers are mainly found on high-status sites, such as nucleated forts like Mote of Mark or important ecclesiastical centres like Whithorn. In those circumstances, it is possible that some of the more exotic items were not viewed as regular commodities but were instead utilised as gifts or tributes amongst elites. The initial manufacture and acquisition of these items would, however, have involved commercial transactions somewhere along the line, indicating that the relationship between commodity and gift might still be a complex one.
- The recovery of large quantities of material culture from sites that appear to have afforded safe anchorages on important sea routes has led to the identification of potential ‘beach markets.’ It is suggested that these sites might provide neutral ground where local communities could trade with voyagers trading goods or commodities from further afield. Often, these sites appear to have functioned in a similar manner over millennia, their recurring popularity evidenced by numerous finds dating from prehistory right up to the Early Medieval period, and often later.
- In South West Scotland, two sites in particular stand out as potential beach market sites. These are Luce Sands in Galloway, and Stevenston Sands near Irvine (Callendar 1933). Although there are no traces of structures or habitation on these sites, the quantity of artefacts occurring suggests that people once met there for some purpose, perhaps in considerable numbers. Luce Sands has revealed a number of Northumbrian coins, while Stevenston Sands has produced a fragmentary 10th century oriental coin. Both sites have produced examples of copper alloy ring brooches, concave-sided shale rings and copper-alloy strap-ends with complex zoomorphic decoration, known as ‘Whitby-type’ strap-ends.
- Although exotic items like some high-status foods and drink were imported, sometimes over extensive distances, the communities of the region would have been largely self-sufficient in many respects. Metalworking, in particular, was widely practised, although evidence for non-ferrous metalworking is confined to high-status sites. Moulds for the production of Early Medieval penannular brooches and also crucible fragments were noted by early crannog excavators on sites like Buiston and Lochlea. Similar metalworking residues have been found more recently during excavations of the nucleated fort sites at Mote of Mark and Trusty’s Hill. These include clay mould fragments, crucibles and furnace lining at Trusty’s Hill. Slags and a metalworking file were also recovered from this site, which also revealed the re-use of a sherd of 1st or 2nd century AD Roman Samian ware as a rubber. This may have been used in the final finishing process of decorative metal objects.
- The sherd of Samian ware at Trusty’s Hill came from a soil layer that produced an AMS date of 533-643 AD, with isotope analysis of lead strip revealing a probable source in the Southern Uplands. The metalworking residues revealed evidence for the working of gold, silver, copper and lead. The site also produced an unusual thistle-headed pin made from iron. This was a particularly interesting find, because the amount of effort involved in manufacturing such an intricate item from wrought iron would have been considerable. Adding to the importance of this find was the fact that the iron pin would have been virtually identical to one produced in copper-alloy (now lost) in a mould for a similar thistle-headed pin recovered during the excavations at the Mote of Mark (Toolis and Bowles 2013,44).
- The iron thistle-headed pin from Trusty’s Hill infers an unusual degree of skill on the part of the smith who was working there. Evidence for iron-smelting and smithing, presumably for the production of basic tools and implements, occurs much more widely across the region, and not necessarily in association with high-status sites. Iron-working may have been carried out close to the contemporary settlements where iron objects were required for agriculture or crafts such as woodworking. One such ironworking site is Blairhall Burn, Amisfield, which produced a furnace and metalworking debris in an area potentially located close to but not within a contemporary settlement. Recent excavations at Glenlee not only revealed the largest Early Medieval iron smelting site yet known in Scotland, but also the only known example of a bloomery site known from this period. The site at Glenlee comprised three large working hollows with furnace bases, and structures inferred through pits, postholes and ditches. The site produced a total of 450 kg of slag, mainly from smelting but also from smithing and blacksmithing.
- One area of industrial production which remains elusive is textiles. The first confirmed evidence for textile production within the region comes in the form of a small number of spindle whorls. These were circular weights placed on the end of wooden distaffs used for the hand-spinning wool or flax into thread. The resulting fibres could then be woven into textiles, but as yet evidence for the use of loom weights has not been identified. These spindle whorls tend to be recovered from or near ecclesiastical sites, suggesting that they were used by residents of associated lay settlements. Large numbers, for example, have been recovered during the excavations at Whithorn. These objects also appear to be linked with Anglian/Northumbrian levels, suggesting that textile production, like coinage, was brought into the region during the Anglian conquest. Whether this means that textile production was unknown in the area before this time is questionable, as the production of textiles was taking place more widely across Britain as far back as prehistory. While we have no evidence yet which tells us how or where earlier textile production (using raw materials like wool or flax) was taking place, what the finds from Anglian ecclesiastical settlements can suggest is that at this time – perhaps for the first time – production was undertaken in a more organised, and potentially more industrialised way. This was perhaps done to serve the needs of the religious community, and -potentially – trade any surplus.
- These spindle whorls have been used as an important cultural indicator of Anglian occupation. Though very modest objects, they represent examples of another craft practised during the Early Medieval period: the art of working in coarse stone. Using the same medium but contrasting in both scale and often the level of expertise required in manufacture, are the carved stones which are so representative of the region’s early Christian sites. Even the simplest of designs – such as an incised cross – would have required a degree of skill in their creation, with combinations of circles and cruciform designs requiring the use of compasses.
- Some of the earliest inscribed stones – dating to the mid-5th century AD – display a degree of literacy and familiarity with Latin script. Later objects like the 8th century Ruthwell Cross display significant artistic skill in their design and execution, featuring figures and/or interlacing designs executed in low relief. A number of these crosses – from locations as diverse as Whithorn, Kirkconnel and Monreith – bear a consistent form of interlace decoration which has been described as ‘Anglo-Norse’ and termed the ‘Whithorn School’ of stone-carving. The character of these stones suggests that the craftsmen were based locally, but also that they were receptive to ideas from various cultural sources, and inventive enough to take these ideas and create something new and distinctive of the place and time in which they were working. A similar creative approach to the blending of regional styles is evidenced in some items of metalwork, in particular the Hunterston Brooch.
- Returning to the production of more modest items, the continued use of shale or cannel coal to fashion rings or armlets is evidenced during the Early Medieval period. A particular concave-sided form has been noted from sites like Stevenston Sands. Its exact purpose remains unknown, but it may have functioned as some kind of dress or belt fitting. Slate is also often used to fashion flat discs commonly termed ‘pot lids.’ How these ‘pot lids’ were used is unclear, with indigenous pottery types remaining virtually unknown on Early Medieval sites.
- Those pottery forms which are recovered from Early Medieval sites across the region tend to be exotic types like amphorae and Gaulish wares. These are invariably encountered on high-status ecclesiastical sites like Whithorn or their secular counterparts, the nucleated forts like the Mote of Mark. The manufacture of ceramics – and highly specialised forms of ceramic, at that – must, however, continue, as finds of refractory ceramics are widely attested across the region in the form of metalworking moulds and crucibles. These items were capable of withstanding the high temperatures involved in the casting of molten copper alloy, silver and gold, and their recurring presence means that any lack of indigenous ceramic tradition is down to choice, and not to lack of knowledge.
- Finally, the use of organic materials should not be forgotten. Excavations at crannog sites can sometimes reveal unusual survivals of objects made from wood, antler and bone. Evidence for the working of leather, bone and antler has also been found in the form of off-cuts and associated tools during the excavations at Trusty’s Hill. However, one of the most important discoveries in terms of organic remains has to be the Balmaghie hoard. The contents of the hoard had been separated into discrete parcels, many of which were wrapped in organic wrapping.
- Traces of these materials had been preserved in the corrosion products, and they have been described in an initial report authored by Penelope Rogers (Rogers 2019). They include a woven fabric fashioned from sheep’s wool, pale in colour and probably undyed. The style of the thread and the weave was representative of the ‘tabby repp’ fabric type, a robust and hard-wearing fabric used for outdoor clothing or household use (Rogers 2019). Comparable fabrics have been recovered from Early Medieval contexts in Norway, Hiberno-Norse Ireland, York and London, so its use appears to have been widespread, and comparable fabrics may have been manufactured locally.
- Another fabric represented in the hoard was linen, again representative of a tabby fabric, but with a distinctive spin-patterned weave. Linen showing this particular style of working appeared in Anglo-Saxon England in the 6th and 7th centuries, and it was probably viewed as a high-quality fabric of considerable value (Rogers 2019 7). This particular fabric is unlikely to have been produced locally. A fragment of leather, also recovered from the same hoard, derived from a fairly soft and pliable material, stitched to form closed seams. Its original form was unknown (ibid., 21)