3.5 Research Agenda

This section presents the agenda themes for the Neolithic in Perth and Kinross. Some are nested under the overarching PKARF theme headings, aimed at addressing wider multi-period priorities, while others are period-based and specific to the scope of this chapter. Where appropriate, a short explanatory note is provided, detailing underlying period-based thematic priorities which is then followed by the research questions generated to address them. 

Environment

Although valuable palaeoenvironmental work has been carried out as part of landscape and site-based investigations, clarity is still lacking on the overall palaeoenvironmental context (including climate) of the region’s Neolithic. The reliance on timber and other woodland resources in Neolithic lifeways is evident (Noble 2017), but there is much to learn about how these resources were obtained and used, what technologies were deployed and what evidence there is for impact on or stewardship of woodland. A better understanding of human / climate interactions is needed.

PKARF Agenda 3.1: More palaeoenvironmental work is required on Neolithic sites in the region in order to answer many research questions.

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PKARF Agenda 3.2: Explore the potential to develop prehistoric tree-ring chronologies in Perth and Kinross for archaeological dating, climate record and other palaeoenvironmental applications

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PKARF Qu 3.1: What is the palaeoenvironmental context for Perth and Kinross’ Neolithic?

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PKARF Qu 3.2: How did the environment change over the course of the Neolithic?

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PKARF Qu 3.3: What is the relationship between humans and woodlands in Neolithic Perth and Kinross and how does that change through space and time? 

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PKARF Qu 3.4: How were woodlands used, impacted upon, stewarded (if at all) during the Neolithic and what wood technologies were in use?

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PKARF Qu 3.5: What potential is there to develop prehistoric tree-ring chronologies in Perth and Kinross for archaeological dating, climate record and other palaeoenvironmental applications? 

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Upland / Lowland Relationships

The upland Neolithic remains poorly understood with relatively few modern excavations having been undertaken. More needs to be known about the chronology of funerary and other ceremonial monuments and potentially Neolithic earthworks and hilltop enclosures which remain unexplored. Thought processes as followed by Loveday (2016) have proved effective and could be applied here even prior to fieldwork, with an upland Neolithic survey providing an opportunity to answer key questions.

PKARF Agenda 3.3: There is a need to locate and investigate settlement and subsistence activities in upland areas where field walking may be limited.

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PKARF Agenda 3.4: More needs to be known about the chronology of funerary and other ceremonial monuments and potentially Neolithic earthworks and hilltop enclosures which remain unexplored.

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PKARF Agenda 3.5: Undertake an upland Neolithic survey.

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PKARF Qu 3.6: To what extent can significant differences in Neolithic practices, traditions and settlement patterns be identified between the upland and lowland areas of Perth and Kinross and how might such differences be explained? 

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PKARF Qu 3.7: To what extent, if at all, do hilltop enclosures relate to Neolithic activity and what do they tell us about lifeways and practices in this period? 

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PKARF Qu 3.8: To what extent is the apparent upland/lowland divide influenced by differential preservation and visibility of archaeological remains? 

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Periods of Transition

The traditional approach to characterising the past in terms of periods (ie Mesolithic, Neolithic, Chalcolithic etc) has its limitations, especially with regard to defining and explaining the transition from one period to the next. As far as the Neolithic to Chalcolithic transition is concerned, for example, a perspective that considers developments in the centuries before and after the first appearance of the ‘Beaker phenomenon’ might help us to understand better the context in which changes were occurring, the impact of Continental influences (including new people) and the response to them. Following the approach taken by Younger (2015), one potentially fruitful approach might be to focus attention on henges, since in several cases they are known to have been constructed during the second half of the third millennium BC in places where earlier monuments, dating to the first half of the third millennium BC, had existed.

PKARF Agenda 3.6: The transition from the Mesolithic to the Neolithic is an important but poorly understood topic, driven in partly due to limited Mesolithic evidence, and requires further study.

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PKARF Agenda 3.7: More work is needed on the 3rd millennium BC and the poorly understood transition from the Neolithic to the Chalcolithic.

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PKARF Qu 3.9: When did farming arrive in Perth and Kinross?

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We know people were farming at Claish as early as around 3700 BC, but were farmers present in Perth and Kinross much before then?
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PKARF Qu 3.10: What was the relationship between Mesolithic and Neolithic communities in the region?

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PKARF Qu 3.11: How long did the Mesolithic hunting-fishing-foraging lifestyle continue after the first farmers appeared?

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PKARF Qu 3.12: What evidence exists to support a theory of Mesolithic ways of life ending as a result of hunter-fisher-foragers becoming acculturated to a farming lifestyle?

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PKARF Qu 3.13: What does the transition between the Neolithic and Chalcolithic look like, and when – and over how long – did it occur?

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PKARF Qu 3.14: What was the chronological overlap in the use of Grooved Ware and Beaker pottery in Perth and Kinross?

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PKARF Qu 3.15: How many Beaker-using Continental immigrants arrived in Perth and Kinross, and why did they come to this part of Scotland?

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PKARF Qu 3.16: What was the impact of the Continental influences, including the new technology of using metal, on the resident Neolithic communities and how did they respond to their arrival?

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Cropmarks

The region’s cropmark record is of significant importance for understanding the monument landscape of this period and this has been clearly demonstrated through recent research such as the SERF Project. Although valuable work has been carried out, further synthesis and characterisation of the cropmark record is still needed and the potentially Neolithic structures that have been identified, such as by Millican (2016a, 2016b), require further assessment and ground-truthing.

PKARF Agenda 3.8: The region’s cropmark record is of significant importanct and further synthesis and characterisation of the cropmark record is needed.

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PKARF Agenda 3.9: Neolithic structures that have been identified through cropmarks, such as by Millican (2016a, 2016b), require further assessment and ground-truthing.

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PKARF Qu 3.17: How can an evaluation of all cropmark sites that might be Neolithic assist in our understanding of the monument landscape of the region?

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PKARF Qu 3.18: What can an evaluation of lessons learned from prior excavations of cropmarks in the Region, and beyond, tell us about Perth and Kinross’s Neolithic?

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PKARF Qu 3.19: To what extent would re-assessing and better characterising the cropmark record in Perth and Kinross more generally and in light of excavations, expand our understanding of the Neolithic of the region?

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PKARF Qu 3.20: Which, if any, of the region’s cropmark sites, which bear a resemblance to causewayed enclosures, date to the Neolithic?

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Settlements and Timber ‘Square-in-circle’ Structures

Priority 1: There is a need to improve our current poor understanding of Neolithic settlements and how they changed over time. For example, what was the architecture of houses that succeeded the Claish ‘hall’, particularly at sites where only pits are found? There is currently very little evidence for domestic timber structures across the region with knowledge largely dependent on pits and cropmarks.

Priority 2: The record for the Middle Neolithic (around 3500–3000 BC) is particularly thin. Recent developer-funded discoveries and cropmark identifications offer potential targets and present opportunities for focusing future research. A systematic fieldwalking campaign, akin to that employed by Phillips in Strathtay in 1994 (Phillips and Bradley 2005), could help to identify settlement sites and contextualise the cropmark record while also encouraging community participation and skills training. It may also aid identification of lowland late Mesolithic sites. Ground-truthing by excavation following fieldwalking would be key to capitalising on the information gathered (cf Barclay and Wickham-Jones 2002).

PKARF Agenda 3.10: Carry out a systematic fieldwalking campaign assist in the identification of settlements and of individual domestic structures?

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PKARF Agenda 3.11: Carry out an assessment of lithic collections already held in museums.

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PKARF Qu 3.21: What kinds of house structure were used during the Neolithic?

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PKARF Qu 3.22: How did domestic architecture and the size, organisation, temporality and distribution of settlements change over the course of the Neolithic?

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PKARF Qu 3.23: What can be said about the domestic structures that had probably existed at sites where the only surviving evidence is in the form of pits and artefact scatters?

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PKARF Qu 3.24: When considering the site of Haughs of Pittentian (MPK18545), can any of the timber ‘circle-and-square’ structures of the Late Neolithic (and possibly Middle Neolithic) be confidently interpreted as houses, as has been claimed?

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If so, then were they roofed? If timber ‘square -in-circles were ‘great houses’ then where did the ordinary people live or were these non-domestic special structures, roofed or otherwise? 
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PKARF Qu 3.25: What was the architecture of houses that succeeded the Claish ‘hall’, particularly at sites where only pits are found?

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Economy, social organisation, material culture and patterns of resource use

Priority 1: Only a vague sense of the agricultural and animal husbandry regime exists and of what wild resources were consumed during the Neolithic in Perth and Kinross.

Priority 2: There is a need to better understand the nature of social organisation and its possible changes over the course of the Neolithic in this part of Scotland.

Priority 3: Our understanding of the Middle Neolithic pottery in Perth and Kinross is constrained by its paucity.

Priority 4: Greater understanding is required concerning the use of resources and the changing patterns of connectivity linking the Neolithic inhabitants of Perth and Kinross with each other and with people elsewhere. In particular, it would be useful to find out whether any English (probably Yorkshire) flint arrived in this part of Scotland prior to 3000 BC.

PKARF Agenda 3.13: What strategy could be used to locate further sites containing Middle Neolithic Impressed Ware and Late Neolithic Grooved Ware pottery?

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PKARF Qu 3.26: Beyond a probably early cessation of cultivation of bread wheat, in what other ways did the subsistence strategy change over the course of the Neolithic?

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PKARF Qu 3.27: What was the nature of social organisation in Perth and Kinross, and how (if at all) did it change over the course of the Neolithic?

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PKARF Qu 3.28: What can we infer about social organisation from the large Late Neolithic palisaded enclosures and timber ‘square-in-circle’ structures?

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PKARF Qu 3.29: To what extent can the cursus monuments, bank barrow/s and hybrid cursus/bank barrows be interpreted in terms of activities at a tribal level?

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PKARF Qu 3.30: How do the Middle Neolithic Impressed Ware and Late Neolithic Grooved Ware of Perth and Kinross compare with their counterparts elsewhere in Scotland and in Britain more widely?

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PKARF Qu 3.31: What further can be understood about the chronology of exploitation of calc-silicate hornfels at Creag na Caillich?

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PKARF Qu 3.32: What evidence exists for the arrival of English (probably Yorkshire) flint in Perth and Kinross prior to around 3000 BC?

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PKARF Qu 3.33: What is the overall picture of stone exploitation as reflected in the stone axeheads found in the region? In other words, what proportion of all axeheads that have been found belong to ‘Grouped’ rock types?

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Monuments, funerary practices and enclosures

Priority 1: The chronology and associated funerary practices of monument types such as long mounds, cursus monuments and bank barrows remain poorly understood. A wider assessment of the potential for further Early Neolithic round barrows is also required.

Priority 2: Greater clarity of the chronology and form of the Cleaven Dyke (MPK6611) is required, including whether its north-west end consisted of a long barrow with an oval barrow adjacent to it.

Priority 3: Very little is known about the funerary practices of the Late Neolithic users of Grooved Ware pottery. For example, the Forteviot cemetery (MPK1888) featuring deposits of cremated remains was not associated with this kind of pottery.

Priority 4: It still remains unclear as to whether there are any Neolithic causewayed enclosures in Perth and Kinross and how many Neolithic enclosures of any type there are in this region.

Priority 5: It is unclear whether any standing stones, stone circles or other orthostatic stone settings (apart from the Forteviot standing stone) were erected in Perth and Kinross during the Neolithic.

PKARF Qu 3.34: What funerary practices were associated with the builders of Early Neolithic long mounds in the region and how do they compare to those found in similar monuments elsewhere?

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PKARF Qu 3.35: What evidence exists for cursus monuments or bank barrows being used for the laying out or burial of the dead?

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PKARF Qu 3.36: Over what date range were long mounds, cursus monuments and bank barrows constructed?

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The Scottish Archaeological Research Framework

PKARF Qu 3.37: In how many cases were cursus monuments built onto pre-existing Early Neolithic long mounds?

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https://scarf.scot/researchframework/v1/question/question-6296103da345f
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01/06/2022
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01/06/2025
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The Scottish Archaeological Research Framework

PKARF Qu 3.38: When was the Cleaven Dyke constructed, and could the application of techniques such as OSL dating provide new information?

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PKARF Qu 3.39: What evidence is there for the north-west end of the Cleaven Dyke actually being an Early Neolithic long barrow, and for an oval barrow adjacent to it?

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PKARF Qu 3.40: What evidence is there for the presence of Neolithic causewayed enclosures in Perth and Kinross?

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https://scarf.scot/researchframework/v1/question/question-6296103da5572
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PKARF Qu 3.41: How many Neolithic enclosures are there in this region, when were they constructed and how were they used?

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PKARF Qu 3.42: What was the nature of Middle Neolithic funerary practices?

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https://scarf.scot/researchframework/v1/question/question-6296103da6818
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PKARF Qu 3.43: What was the nature of Late Neolithic funerary practices associated with the users of Grooved Ware pottery?

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PKARF Qu 3.44: What evidence exists for the erection of standing stones (other than the Forteviot cemetery-marker stone), stone circles or stone settings during the Neolithic in Perth and Kinross?

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Rock Art

Priority 1: The region has a rich rock art record, but its chronology is unclear. Further work is required to acquire dating evidence for the lifecycle of decorated stones and practices associated with them.

Priority 2: Rock art requires better integration into the narratives of the period where it can contribute more effectively to the understanding of the Neolithic in both the uplands and lowlands.

PKARF Agenda 3.14: There is a need to integrate Rock Art into the wider narratives of the period.

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https://scarf.scot/researchframework/v1/strategy/strategy-6298ca7a3e03e
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01/06/2022
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PKARF Agenda 3.15: More dating evidence is required for Rock Art to improve chronologies.

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PKARF Qu 3.45: What is the chronology of the region’s rock art?

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01/06/2025
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PKARF Qu 3.46: To what extent is rock art associated with Neolithic and Early Bronze Age activities in the region, both ritual and domestic?

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PKARF Qu 3.47: What relationships can be determined between rock art and the natural landscape in the region?

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01/06/2025
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PKARF Qu 3.48: What is the character of rock art in this region, and what can this tell us about connectivity with other regions within and outwith Scotland?

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https://scarf.scot/researchframework/v1/question/question-6296103dac1de
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01/06/2025
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PKARF Qu 3.49: How can rock art contribute more holistically to our understanding of the region’s Neolithic?

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https://scarf.scot/researchframework/v1/question/question-6296103dacaeb
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Date accepted:
01/06/2022
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01/06/2025
Found in the following Frameworks:
The Scottish Archaeological Research Framework