This section presents the agenda themes for the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age in Perth and Kinross. Some are nested under the overarching PKARF theme headings aimed at addressing wider multi-period priorities and others are period-based and specific to the scope of this chapter. Where appropriate, a short explanatory note is provided detailing underlying period-based thematic priorities which is then followed by the research questions generated to address them.
Environment and climate, and its relationship to human activity
Priorities
PKARF Agenda 4.1: Develop a fine-grained narrative of the past environment and climate in Chalcolithic and Bronze Age Perth and Kinross, and assess whether and how any observed changes may relate to changes in human activities
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Questions
PKARF Qu 4.1: Is there evidence for a climatic downturn around 1000 BC, or at any other time between 2500 BC and 800 BC, as has been claimed (Strachan 2010b, 49), and if there is, is this associated with any cessation of upland settlement or any other changes in human activity?
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PKARF Qu 4.2: What potential is there to develop prehistoric tree-ring chronologies for Perth and Kinross for archaeological dating, climate record and other environmental applications?
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Upland and Lowland relationships and the nature of settlement and land use
Priorities
PKARF Agenda 4.2: Ascertain the nature, organisation and distribution of Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age settlements and land use – for which evidence is currently lacking.
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PKARF Agenda 4.3: Determine whether the gaps and inconsistencies in the record for Middle and Late Bronze Age settlement between upland and lowland areas and between the areas to the east, west and south of the Ochils reflects the genuine prehistoric picture or is a function of historic research priorities.
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PKARF Agenda 4.4: More generally, compare site types and distributions, and patterns of artefact deposition and recovery, between upland and lowland areas of the Region.
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There is a notable difference in artefact recovery between the upland and lowlands with upland areas generally artefact poor, especially in terms of chance finds, and a greater number of artefacts recovered from lowland areas. The phenomenon is not unique to Perth and Kinross with other Bronze Age upland/lowland areas in Britain such as Dartmoor displaying similar relationships in the preservation of the archaeological evidence. Stevenson (1975) used the old county of Perthshire as a case study to explore the known issues of survival and discovery, demonstrating how ideal the region is, with its density of archaeological features and findspots, for teasing out the nuances between prehistoric practice and modern destruction that influence the archaeological record.Status:
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PKARF Agenda 4.5: Improve our understanding of the nature of upland settlement in north-east Perth and Kinross
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Extensive evidence has been identified but few settlements have been investigated in depth. Full survey and excavation of an upland settlement in this area should therefore be considered a high priority for understanding these upland settlement landscapes better. Previously excavated sites where Bronze Age activity has already been identified, such as at Dalrulzion and Carn Dubh, offer obvious targets that would enhance our understanding of the temporal depth of occupation in the uplands, as well as roundhouse construction techniques. Much more dating evidence needs to be obtained from these and from other sites. The landscape assessment conducted at Dalrulzion by Forestry and Land Scotland between 2009 and 2010 (Shepherd 2010) emphasises the value of further work.Status:
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PKARF Agenda 4.6: Undertake more remote surveys utilising technologies such as LiDAR throughout Perth and Kinross, particularly in the west, and follow up with targeted excavation.
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This would allow closer examination of known and freshly identified lowland cropmark sites in areas where our knowledge of Bronze Age settlement is currently limited. Recent discoveries around Loch Leven, for example, indicate that this was an area of high activity in the Bronze Age. Hut circles and enclosures identified in and around the Loch Leven basin therefore merit further investigation for their potential as related evidence for Bronze Age settlement.Status:
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PKARF Agenda 4.7: Develop our understanding of subsistence strategies and practices 2500–800 BC across the Region from its current, limited state, making better use of the palaeoenvironmental data at our disposal and obtaining more such data.
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What was the balance between agriculture and pastoral activities, and did the exploitation of wild resources form a significant part of the subsistence strategies? Did burnt mounds, such as the Gleneagles West example (MPK#/Canmore ID 293621), relate to a specific way of cooking food, and how many of them belong to this period? Did they have other functions as well?Status:
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Questions
PKARF Qu 4.3: What is the nature and organisation of Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age settlement and land use and where were people living?
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PKARF Qu 4.4: Were there genuine differences in settlement and land use patterns between the upland and lowland parts of the region, and if so, what were they?
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Do the present gaps and inconsistencies in the data reflect the past situation, or are they a function of variable archaeological visibility/survival and/or variable past survey?Status:
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PKARF Qu 4.5: Can any trends in the pattern or nature of settlement and land use be discerned in the region over time?
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Are the changes in roundhouse design and presence/absence of enclosed settlements as observed around Blackford typical of the region as a whole?Status:
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PKARF Qu 4.6: Are any the fortified sites (ie those with substantial ditches and ramparts) in the region of Bronze Age date?
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PKARF Qu 4.7: Are there any pre-Iron Age crannogs in the region?
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PKARF Qu 4.8: Can we better date the many sites that have produced evidence for settlement activity of putative Bronze Age date, eg at Gleneagles West (MPK#/Canmore ID 293621)?
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Periods of Transition
Priorities
PKARF Agenda 4.8: Understand better the social dynamics of the observed changes between what we call the Late Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods.
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Sites and landscapes with evidence for both Late Neolithic and Chalcolithic activity (such as Forteviot: Brophy and Noble 2020 and North Mains: Barclay 1983) may offer the opportunity to explore this matter. DNA analysis of human remains should be used to inform patterns of population change in this region.Status:
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PKARF Agenda 4.9: How, if at all, did society change around 800 BC – the conventional date given to the beginning of the ‘Iron Age’?
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Did the power of the Late Bronze Age elites decline as their broader, Atlantic-wide network of interaction collapse, as seems to be the case? What does the evidence for Iron Age fortified sites and for the Iron Age use of crannogs tell us about changes in society?Status:
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Questions
PKARF Qu 4.9: When immigrants arrived from the Continent, bringing novel technologies, practices and concerns, how many were there, and how did they interact with the indigenous population?
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PKARF Qu 4.10: Are Chalcolithic henges an expression of an indigenous reaction to the appearance of all the novelties?
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PKARF Qu 4.11: For how long did Late Neolithic practices such as the use of Grooved Ware survive after the appearance of Beaker pottery?
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PKARF Qu 4.12: Are there geographical differences between Late Neolithic and Chalcolithic areas of activity, and what can sites and areas with activities spanning these periods tell us about social dynamics?
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PKARF Qu 4.13: What, precisely, changed around 800 BC?
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Can we see changes in the nature or distribution of settlements, in artefact types, and in depositional practices? Was there a change to the construction of more fortified sites around this time? And what does the shift to constructing crannogs during the Iron Age tell us about changes in settlement/land use patterns and society?Status:
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Routeways
Priorities
PKARF Agenda 4.10: Use what has already been learned from the multi-disciplinary research carried out in conjunction with the recovery of the Carpow logboat (Strachan 2010a) as the basis for a broader Loch Tay environs project as recommended by Cowie and Hall (2001; 2010), to explore lifeways, ritual deposition, trade, exchange and migration.
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PKARF Agenda 4.11: Roll out this approach to other parts of Perth and Kinross, such as Strathearn and Glen Lyon, which also offer strong research potential.
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PKARF Agenda 4.12: Explore the evidence for terrestrial routeways as revealed by the finds of sub-peat wooden roads and trackways
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Questions
PKARF Qu 4.14: What role did the rivers and lochs play in the transmission of people, ideas, technologies and materials to, through and from the region?
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PKARF Qu 4.15: Can any differences be discerned between the uses of the different rivers and lochs in the region, and did the uses of these rivers and lochs change over time?
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PKARF Qu 4.16: What was the significance of rivers and lochs in the belief systems and traditions of practice of the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age inhabitants of the region?
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PKARF Qu 4.17: How many of the wooden track- and roadways that have been found in the region date to the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age periods, and how might they have compared to the rivers as routeways?
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Investigative disparity, and issues of data accessibility
Priorities
PKARF Agenda 4.13: Examine why so few Chalcolithic and Bronze Age sites and monuments are known in areas west of the River Tay and in the north-west uplands around Rannoch Moor in comparison with other parts of the region.
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Is this solely because such areas have not been as intensively surveyed as north-east or south-east Perthshire (RCAHMS 1990; 1994) or Kinross-shire (RCAHMS 1933)? That this may not fully account for the disparity is suggested by the similar disparity in metal-detected finds, despite widespread metal detecting activity. Systematic remote survey, followed up by targeted excavation, in areas where the record is currently sparse, is needed.Status:
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PKARF Agenda 4.14: Re-evaluate the results of old excavations, such as Dalrulzion, Balnabrouch, Moncreiffe and Lundin Farm, to see whether fresh information – especially chronological data – can be obtained from the finds.
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The benefits of such an approach have been made clear by Bradley’s reassessment and re-excavation of Croftmoraig (Bradley and Sheridan 2005; Bradley and Nimura 2016, chapters 4 and 10).Status:
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PKARF Agenda 4.15: Critically re-evaluate the aerial photography record and other remote sensing data to assess how many sites and landscapes that may be of Chalcolithic and Bronze Age date are present, and follow these up with targeted excavation.
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PKARF Agenda 4.16: Undertake programmes of radiocarbon dating, DNA and isotopic analysis to enhance the information that can be obtained from what has already been found in the region, and integrate it within the broader national and international picture.
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The benefits of such an approach are clear, for example, from the results of NMS’ programme of radiocarbon dating, which has targeted material that has been held in museums for many years (eg Sheridan 2007b). Full, open access publication of all such dates and other data will facilitate future research. Allied to this is the compilation of comprehensive databases for the region, not just of radiocarbon dates, DNA and isotope data, but also of artefact finds and site types.Status:
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PKARF Agenda 4.17: Publish fully the results of developer-funded excavations that have not yet been published fully, and undertake the necessary outstanding post-excavation work, especially radiocarbon dating, that is required to realise the full potential of the finds.
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Barclay’s work bringing unpublished excavation reports of Stewart’s to publication (Stewart and Barclay 1997) has highlighted the wealth of valuable information that remains inaccessible within unpublished site archives. Publishing historic excavations and promoting full publication of future archaeological investigations through comprehensive post-excavation research designs could add significantly to our understanding of the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age in Perth and Kinross.Status:
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PKARF Agenda 4.18: Make existing data more accessible: improve the integration and searchability of national and regional databases.
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Currently, searches for site types such as kerb-cairns in Canmore, throw up far fewer examples than are known to exist (and indeed are named as such within individual site records), which can hinder research. HERs maintain individual sets of records for Local Authority areas but the degree to which these are available online and searchable varies across Scotland, although HERs can be contacted directly for information. Neither Canmore or the majority of online HERs make grey literature from excavation available, although data structure reports are becoming increasingly available through the online Archaeology Data Service (ADS) archives. The individualistic nature of each of these separate databases makes it challenging to extract sites and information and a long term solution for better accessibility and integration between them is needed nationally to resolve this. Similarly, information about artefacts, finds and excavation assemblages, such as that held nationally by Treasure Trove, needs to be better integrated with sites and monuments information and would be of benefit both within planning archaeology and research.Status:
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Questions
PKARF Qu 4.18: To what extent is the eastern geographical bias of the region’s distribution of known Chalcolithic and Bronze Age sites a reflection of past human activity?
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Is it a function of differing archaeological visibility/survival, and/or of uneven survey coverage?Status:
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PKARF Qu 4.19: What details are we missing from historic archaeological excavations (both published and unpublished) that could refine our understanding of the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age?
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In particular, can the dating of the Dalrulzion and Carn Dubh settlements be improved?Status:
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Dating and characterising Chalcolithic and Bronze Age monuments and funerary practices
Priorities
PKARF Agenda 4.19: Develop a comprehensive synthesis of the existing evidence, using this chapter, and Winlow’s 2010 resource assessment of Late Bronze Age Tayside, as a foundation.
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This is required in order to unlock the potential of the resource and to direct future regional research. In particular, a compendium and critical appraisal of all the radiocarbon dates would be a good start.Status:
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PKARF Agenda 4.20: Improve the dating evidence for specific types of monument, especially kerb-cairns, stone circles and oval settings, single standing stones, paired stones and the apparent stone row at Sketewan;
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Clarify the dating of multi-period monuments such as Moncreiffe and Lundin Farm; and clarify the dating of funerary practices and traditions, especially through the systematic dating of the individuals in the Kilmagadwood cemetery, and Bayesian modelling of the results. Existing collections of human remains and ecofacts can be dated, and the new methods of dating absorbed lipids in pottery, can be used to obtain dating evidence.Status:
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PKARF Agenda 4.21: Explore other monuments of potential Chalcolithic and Bronze Age date that have been discovered through aerial photography or other remote sensing techniques, using targeted excavation programmes.
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Re-examine the existing system for categorising monuments to check whether it encompasses the full range of monuments in use between 2500 BC and 800 BC.Status:
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PKARF Agenda 4.22: Critically re-evaluate the evidence that has already been proposed for the astronomical orientation of certain monuments in the region, and explore whether other monuments were also astronomically orientated.
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Questions
PKARF Qu 4.20: How do the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age monuments and funerary traditions in Perth and Kinross compare with those of elsewhere in Scotland, and what can we learn from them about external connections and social organisation?
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PKARF Qu 4.21: When were specific monument types constructed, and how were they used?
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In particular, we know nothing about when paired stones, single standing stones and the Sketewan stone row were erected, and when many stone circles were built. Were the ‘mini-henges’ in the region all built during the Chalcolithic period, or were some built later?Status:
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PKARF Qu 4.22: How many kerb-cairns survive in the region?
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What is their distribution? Were they in contemporary use with oval settings or other monument types, and if so, what do they tell us about the belief systems of the people who built and used them?Status:
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06/01/2022Date of next review:
06/01/2025Linked Strategy(s):
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The Scottish Archaeological Research FrameworkCategories:
PKARF Qu 4.23: Did people create new ‘rock art’ (in addition to the designs at Forteviot and Loanleven) during the Bronze Age?
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https://scarf.scot/researchframework/v1/question/question-630754706d972More information:
In particular, were the cupmarks (and occasional other motifs) found on uprights in stone circles, Four-Poster monuments and paired stones created during the Bronze Age?Status:
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06/01/2025Linked Strategy(s):
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PKARF Qu 4.24: Was cremation the only funerary practice used during the Middle and Late Bronze Age in the region, and what happened to the remains of the bulk of the population – given that our record for human remains for these periods is so sparse?
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https://scarf.scot/researchframework/v1/question/question-630754706e317More information:
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06/01/2022Date of next review:
06/01/2025Linked Strategy(s):
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The Scottish Archaeological Research FrameworkCategories:
Understanding Metalwork
Priorities
PKARF Agenda 4.23: A systematic metallurgical analysis of the metalwork from Perth and Kinross, supported by lead isotope analysis, is required to identify the sources of the metal in different areas and at different times; this needs to be set within a nationwide agenda to understand the movement of metal into and out of different areas.
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https://scarf.scot/researchframework/v1/strategy/strategy-630755bca062dMore information:
We still know relatively little about the sources of the metal that was being circulated and deposited in Perth and Kinross, as well as the systems by which it was distributed.Status:
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PKARF Agenda 4.24: Carry out an investigation into the compositional data available from Middle and Late Bronze Age metalwork.
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https://scarf.scot/researchframework/v1/strategy/strategy-630755bca141eMore information:
The lack of this was an issue raised in the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age national ScARF report. Our present understanding of the circulation of metal in, out and through Perth and Kinross, and indeed Scotland, is thus limited and requires further attention.Status:
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Questions
PKARF Qu 4.25: From where did the raw materials for the copper, bronze and gold objects found in the region come, and how did the metal arrive in the region – as ingots or as finished artefacts?
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https://scarf.scot/researchframework/v1/question/question-630754706ec45More information:
Can we identify trends or patterns in the direction of flow of metal (in whatever form) into the region, and how does this compare with other parts of Scotland?Status:
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PKARF Qu 4.26: What routes were used in the circulation of metalwork, and how important were rivers, lochs and trackways/roads in this movement?
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https://scarf.scot/researchframework/v1/question/question-630754706f5f0More information:
Was Rannoch Moor to Loch Tay a key cross-country routeway? Can survey (eg boreholes) and evaluation (eg trial trenches) add to our understanding of metal movement in and through Perth and Kinross?Status:
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PKARF Qu 4.27: How much metalworking went on in the region?
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https://scarf.scot/researchframework/v1/question/question-630754706fe42More information:
Does the presence of metalworking activity within a pre-existing monument at Moncreiffe indicate a special status for metalworkers and metalworking, or does it reflect a disregard for the past significance of the monument?Status:
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06/01/2022Date of next review:
06/01/2025Linked Strategy(s):
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PKARF Qu 4.28: How does the artefactual use of metalwork relate to artefacts made in other media?
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https://scarf.scot/researchframework/v1/question/question-6307547070946More information:
What was the social and ideological value of metal artefacts?Status:
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06/01/2022Date of next review:
06/01/2025Linked Strategy(s):
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The Scottish Archaeological Research FrameworkCategories:
Material Culture and Society
Priorities
PKARF Agenda 4.25: The overall typochronology of Chalcolithic and Bronze Age pottery in the region needs to be clarified and set within its broader geographical context.
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https://scarf.scot/researchframework/v1/strategy/strategy-630755bca2076More information:
In particular, the currency of the various kinds of Early Bronze Age cinerary urn and associated vessels needs to be set on a firmer chronological basis, with the dating of the human remains in the urns in the Kilmagadwood cemetery (Sheridan et al 2018a) a priority. Moreover, the ceramic repertoire of the Middle and Late Bronze Age needs to be disentangled, so that the outdated ‘flat-rimmed ware/Bucket Urn’ portmanteau term can finally be abandoned in favour of a more nuanced and accurate characterisation. The new technique of dating absorbed lipids in pottery should be applied to help achieve this. The gap in our knowledge of Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age ‘domestic’ pottery needs to be plugged.Status:
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01/06/2022Date of next review:
01/06/2025Linked Question(s):
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The Scottish Archaeological Research FrameworkCategories:
PKARF Agenda 4.26: There is still much to learn about the nature, scale and organisation of production of different kinds of artefact.
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https://scarf.scot/researchframework/v1/strategy/strategy-630755bca2a74More information:
The high quality of the earliest Beaker pottery – made according to Continental norms – and the identification of two Food Vessels probably made by the same potter, from North Mains and Cowdenhill, 36km away, raise the question of whether any pottery was made by specialist potters. That metalwork was made by specialists is not in question, but on what scale, and where? We lack evidence of Bronze Age craft workshops that might indicate specialist craftspeople, working in any media, operating within the region. There has been no systematic study of the production of certain objects, other than of jewellery and dress accessories of jet and jet-like materials, eg the disc-and-fusiform bead necklaces from Almondbank (Wilthew and Davis in Stewart and Barclay 1997, 30–31) and of faience beads.Status:
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Date accepted:
01/06/2022Date of next review:
01/06/2025Linked Question(s):
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The Scottish Archaeological Research FrameworkCategories:
PKARF Agenda 4.27: More needs to be understood about the nature of stone resource exploitation and the range of flaked, coarse and fine stone artefacts in use between 2500 BC and 800 BC in the region.
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https://scarf.scot/researchframework/v1/strategy/strategy-630755bca348eMore information:
No systematic review of lithic scatters and of stray lithic artefacts has yet been attempted to help identify areas of Chalcolithic and Bronze Age activity.Status:
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Date accepted:
01/06/2022Date of next review:
01/06/2025Linked Question(s):
Found in the following Frameworks:
The Scottish Archaeological Research FrameworkCategories:
PKARF Agenda 4.28: More needs to be understood about how, and for how long, artefacts were used.
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https://scarf.scot/researchframework/v1/strategy/strategy-630755bca3efaMore information:
The results of existing use-wear studies on various artefacts from the region including jet and jet-like jewellery and bronze weapons need to be brought together and more such studies need to be undertaken. More organic residue (including absorbed lipid) analysis of pottery needs to be done.Status:
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Date accepted:
01/06/2022Date of next review:
01/06/2025Linked Question(s):
Found in the following Frameworks:
The Scottish Archaeological Research FrameworkCategories:
PKARF Agenda 4.29: More needs to be understood about the social and cultural context of artefact deposition practices.
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https://scarf.scot/researchframework/v1/strategy/strategy-630755bca4999More information:
With the increase in metal detecting, we now know more about the depositional contexts and findspots of objects in Perth and Kinross than ever before, revealing certain areas of deposition that were in use over long periods of time, eg around Tayside. These practices occurred in specific social and cultural contexts, as recognised through ‘cultural biographies’ of objects (for which, see particularly Kopytoff 1986; Gosden and Marshall 1999). Such studies explore object ‘life histories’, production, use and deposition processes and the cultural context in which objects functioned. There is a real opportunity in Perth and Kinross for studies of this nature to be carried out.Status:
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01/06/2022Date of next review:
01/06/2025Linked Question(s):
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PKARF Agenda 4.30: The changing nature of social organisation, and of external contacts, in the region is poorly understood.
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URI:
https://scarf.scot/researchframework/v1/strategy/strategy-630755bca53a0More information:
Our characterisation of Chalcolithic and Bronze Age society, and our ways of recognising how society operated, need to be improved. This requires both theoretical advances and the application of scientific methods to assess the movement of people and of objects, as well as a holistic approach to the various kinds of information available.Status:
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Date accepted:
01/06/2022Date of next review:
01/06/2025Linked Question(s):
Found in the following Frameworks:
The Scottish Archaeological Research FrameworkCategories:
Questions